| .. | |||||
| appetite.txt | |||||
| classes.txt | |||||
| controlflow.txt | |||||
| datastructures.txt | |||||
| errors.txt | |||||
| floatingpoint.txt | |||||
| index.txt | |||||
| inputoutput.txt | |||||
| interactive.txt | |||||
| interpreter.txt | |||||
| introduction.txt | |||||
| modules.txt | |||||
| stdlib.txt | |||||
| stdlib2.txt | |||||
| whatnow.txt |
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.. _tut-errors:
*********************
Errors and Exceptions
*********************
Until now error messages haven't been more than mentioned, but if you have tried
out the examples you have probably seen some. There are (at least) two
distinguishable kinds of errors: *syntax errors* and *exceptions*.
.. _tut-syntaxerrors:
Syntax Errors
=============
Syntax errors, also known as parsing errors, are perhaps the most common kind of
complaint you get while you are still learning Python::
>>> while True print 'Hello world'
File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
while True print 'Hello world'
^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
The parser repeats the offending line and displays a little 'arrow' pointing at
the earliest point in the line where the error was detected. The error is
caused by (or at least detected at) the token *preceding* the arrow: in the
example, the error is detected at the keyword :keyword:`print`, since a colon
(``':'``) is missing before it. File name and line number are printed so you
know where to look in case the input came from a script.
.. _tut-exceptions:
Exceptions
==========
Even if a statement or expression is syntactically correct, it may cause an
error when an attempt is made to execute it. Errors detected during execution
are called *exceptions* and are not unconditionally fatal: you will soon learn
how to handle them in Python programs. Most exceptions are not handled by
programs, however, and result in error messages as shown here::
>>> 10 * (1/0)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero
>>> 4 + spam*3
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
NameError: name 'spam' is not defined
>>> '2' + 2
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
TypeError: cannot concatenate 'str' and 'int' objects
The last line of the error message indicates what happened. Exceptions come in
different types, and the type is printed as part of the message: the types in
the example are :exc:`ZeroDivisionError`, :exc:`NameError` and :exc:`TypeError`.
The string printed as the exception type is the name of the built-in exception
that occurred. This is true for all built-in exceptions, but need not be true
for user-defined exceptions (although it is a useful convention). Standard
exception names are built-in identifiers (not reserved keywords).
The rest of the line provides detail based on the type of exception and what
caused it.
The preceding part of the error message shows the context where the exception
happened, in the form of a stack traceback. In general it contains a stack
traceback listing source lines; however, it will not display lines read from
standard input.
:ref:`bltin-exceptions` lists the built-in exceptions and their meanings.
.. _tut-handling:
Handling Exceptions
===================
It is possible to write programs that handle selected exceptions. Look at the
following example, which asks the user for input until a valid integer has been
entered, but allows the user to interrupt the program (using :kbd:`Control-C` or
whatever the operating system supports); note that a user-generated interruption
is signalled by raising the :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` exception. ::
>>> while True:
... try:
... x = int(raw_input("Please enter a number: "))
... break
... except ValueError:
... print "Oops! That was no valid number. Try again..."
...
The :keyword:`try` statement works as follows.
* First, the *try clause* (the statement(s) between the :keyword:`try` and
:keyword:`except` keywords) is executed.
* If no exception occurs, the *except clause* is skipped and execution of the
:keyword:`try` statement is finished.
* If an exception occurs during execution of the try clause, the rest of the
clause is skipped. Then if its type matches the exception named after the
:keyword:`except` keyword, the except clause is executed, and then execution
continues after the :keyword:`try` statement.
* If an exception occurs which does not match the exception named in the except
clause, it is passed on to outer :keyword:`try` statements; if no handler is
found, it is an *unhandled exception* and execution stops with a message as
shown above.
A :keyword:`try` statement may have more than one except clause, to specify
handlers for different exceptions. At most one handler will be executed.
Handlers only handle exceptions that occur in the corresponding try clause, not
in other handlers of the same :keyword:`try` statement. An except clause may
name multiple exceptions as a parenthesized tuple, for example::
... except (RuntimeError, TypeError, NameError):
... pass
Note that the parentheses around this tuple are required, because
``except ValueError, e:`` was the syntax used for what is normally
written as ``except ValueError as e:`` in modern Python (described
below). The old syntax is still supported for backwards compatibility.
This means ``except RuntimeError, TypeError`` is not equivalent to
``except (RuntimeError, TypeError):`` but to ``except RuntimeError as
TypeError:`` which is not what you want.
The last except clause may omit the exception name(s), to serve as a wildcard.
Use this with extreme caution, since it is easy to mask a real programming error
in this way! It can also be used to print an error message and then re-raise
the exception (allowing a caller to handle the exception as well)::
import sys
try:
f = open('myfile.txt')
s = f.readline()
i = int(s.strip())
except IOError as e:
print "I/O error({0}): {1}".format(e.errno, e.strerror)
except ValueError:
print "Could not convert data to an integer."
except:
print "Unexpected error:", sys.exc_info()[0]
raise
The :keyword:`try` ... :keyword:`except` statement has an optional *else
clause*, which, when present, must follow all except clauses. It is useful for
code that must be executed if the try clause does not raise an exception. For
example::
for arg in sys.argv[1:]:
try:
f = open(arg, 'r')
except IOError:
print 'cannot open', arg
else:
print arg, 'has', len(f.readlines()), 'lines'
f.close()
The use of the :keyword:`else` clause is better than adding additional code to
the :keyword:`try` clause because it avoids accidentally catching an exception
that wasn't raised by the code being protected by the :keyword:`try` ...
:keyword:`except` statement.
When an exception occurs, it may have an associated value, also known as the
exception's *argument*. The presence and type of the argument depend on the
exception type.
The except clause may specify a variable after the exception name (or tuple).
The variable is bound to an exception instance with the arguments stored in
``instance.args``. For convenience, the exception instance defines
:meth:`__str__` so the arguments can be printed directly without having to
reference ``.args``.
One may also instantiate an exception first before raising it and add any
attributes to it as desired. ::
>>> try:
... raise Exception('spam', 'eggs')
... except Exception as inst:
... print type(inst) # the exception instance
... print inst.args # arguments stored in .args
... print inst # __str__ allows args to printed directly
... x, y = inst.args
... print 'x =', x
... print 'y =', y
...
<type 'exceptions.Exception'>
('spam', 'eggs')
('spam', 'eggs')
x = spam
y = eggs
If an exception has an argument, it is printed as the last part ('detail') of
the message for unhandled exceptions.
Exception handlers don't just handle exceptions if they occur immediately in the
try clause, but also if they occur inside functions that are called (even
indirectly) in the try clause. For example::
>>> def this_fails():
... x = 1/0
...
>>> try:
... this_fails()
... except ZeroDivisionError as detail:
... print 'Handling run-time error:', detail
...
Handling run-time error: integer division or modulo by zero
.. _tut-raising:
Raising Exceptions
==================
The :keyword:`raise` statement allows the programmer to force a specified
exception to occur. For example::
>>> raise NameError('HiThere')
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
NameError: HiThere
The sole argument to :keyword:`raise` indicates the exception to be raised.
This must be either an exception instance or an exception class (a class that
derives from :class:`Exception`).
If you need to determine whether an exception was raised but don't intend to
handle it, a simpler form of the :keyword:`raise` statement allows you to
re-raise the exception::
>>> try:
... raise NameError('HiThere')
... except NameError:
... print 'An exception flew by!'
... raise
...
An exception flew by!
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 2, in ?
NameError: HiThere
.. _tut-userexceptions:
User-defined Exceptions
=======================
Programs may name their own exceptions by creating a new exception class (see
:ref:`tut-classes` for more about Python classes). Exceptions should typically
be derived from the :exc:`Exception` class, either directly or indirectly. For
example::
>>> class MyError(Exception):
... def __init__(self, value):
... self.value = value
... def __str__(self):
... return repr(self.value)
...
>>> try:
... raise MyError(2*2)
... except MyError as e:
... print 'My exception occurred, value:', e.value
...
My exception occurred, value: 4
>>> raise MyError('oops!')
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
__main__.MyError: 'oops!'
In this example, the default :meth:`__init__` of :class:`Exception` has been
overridden. The new behavior simply creates the *value* attribute. This
replaces the default behavior of creating the *args* attribute.
Exception classes can be defined which do anything any other class can do, but
are usually kept simple, often only offering a number of attributes that allow
information about the error to be extracted by handlers for the exception. When
creating a module that can raise several distinct errors, a common practice is
to create a base class for exceptions defined by that module, and subclass that
to create specific exception classes for different error conditions::
class Error(Exception):
"""Base class for exceptions in this module."""
pass
class InputError(Error):
"""Exception raised for errors in the input.
Attributes:
expr -- input expression in which the error occurred
msg -- explanation of the error
"""
def __init__(self, expr, msg):
self.expr = expr
self.msg = msg
class TransitionError(Error):
"""Raised when an operation attempts a state transition that's not
allowed.
Attributes:
prev -- state at beginning of transition
next -- attempted new state
msg -- explanation of why the specific transition is not allowed
"""
def __init__(self, prev, next, msg):
self.prev = prev
self.next = next
self.msg = msg
Most exceptions are defined with names that end in "Error," similar to the
naming of the standard exceptions.
Many standard modules define their own exceptions to report errors that may
occur in functions they define. More information on classes is presented in
chapter :ref:`tut-classes`.
.. _tut-cleanup:
Defining Clean-up Actions
=========================
The :keyword:`try` statement has another optional clause which is intended to
define clean-up actions that must be executed under all circumstances. For
example::
>>> try:
... raise KeyboardInterrupt
... finally:
... print 'Goodbye, world!'
...
Goodbye, world!
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 2, in ?
KeyboardInterrupt
A *finally clause* is always executed before leaving the :keyword:`try`
statement, whether an exception has occurred or not. When an exception has
occurred in the :keyword:`try` clause and has not been handled by an
:keyword:`except` clause (or it has occurred in a :keyword:`except` or
:keyword:`else` clause), it is re-raised after the :keyword:`finally` clause has
been executed. The :keyword:`finally` clause is also executed "on the way out"
when any other clause of the :keyword:`try` statement is left via a
:keyword:`break`, :keyword:`continue` or :keyword:`return` statement. A more
complicated example (having :keyword:`except` and :keyword:`finally` clauses in
the same :keyword:`try` statement works as of Python 2.5)::
>>> def divide(x, y):
... try:
... result = x / y
... except ZeroDivisionError:
... print "division by zero!"
... else:
... print "result is", result
... finally:
... print "executing finally clause"
...
>>> divide(2, 1)
result is 2
executing finally clause
>>> divide(2, 0)
division by zero!
executing finally clause
>>> divide("2", "1")
executing finally clause
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
File "<stdin>", line 3, in divide
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for /: 'str' and 'str'
As you can see, the :keyword:`finally` clause is executed in any event. The
:exc:`TypeError` raised by dividing two strings is not handled by the
:keyword:`except` clause and therefore re-raised after the :keyword:`finally`
clause has been executed.
In real world applications, the :keyword:`finally` clause is useful for
releasing external resources (such as files or network connections), regardless
of whether the use of the resource was successful.
.. _tut-cleanup-with:
Predefined Clean-up Actions
===========================
Some objects define standard clean-up actions to be undertaken when the object
is no longer needed, regardless of whether or not the operation using the object
succeeded or failed. Look at the following example, which tries to open a file
and print its contents to the screen. ::
for line in open("myfile.txt"):
print line,
The problem with this code is that it leaves the file open for an indeterminate
amount of time after the code has finished executing. This is not an issue in
simple scripts, but can be a problem for larger applications. The
:keyword:`with` statement allows objects like files to be used in a way that
ensures they are always cleaned up promptly and correctly. ::
with open("myfile.txt") as f:
for line in f:
print line,
After the statement is executed, the file *f* is always closed, even if a
problem was encountered while processing the lines. Other objects which provide
predefined clean-up actions will indicate this in their documentation.
| .. | |||||
| appetite.txt | |||||
| classes.txt | |||||
| controlflow.txt | |||||
| datastructures.txt | |||||
| errors.txt | |||||
| floatingpoint.txt | |||||
| index.txt | |||||
| inputoutput.txt | |||||
| interactive.txt | |||||
| interpreter.txt | |||||
| introduction.txt | |||||
| modules.txt | |||||
| stdlib.txt | |||||
| stdlib2.txt | |||||
| whatnow.txt |