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<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <title>Idioms and Anti-Idioms in Python — Python 2.7.5 documentation</title> <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/default.css" type="text/css" /> <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" /> <script type="text/javascript"> var DOCUMENTATION_OPTIONS = { URL_ROOT: '../', VERSION: '2.7.5', COLLAPSE_INDEX: false, FILE_SUFFIX: '.html', HAS_SOURCE: true }; </script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" title="Search within Python 2.7.5 documentation" href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/> <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" /> <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" /> <link rel="top" title="Python 2.7.5 documentation" href="../index.html" /> <link rel="up" title="Python HOWTOs" href="index.html" /> <link rel="next" title="Functional Programming HOWTO" href="functional.html" /> <link rel="prev" title="Descriptor HowTo Guide" href="descriptor.html" /> <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" /> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script> </head> <body> <div class="related"> <h3>Navigation</h3> <ul> <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px"> <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index" accesskey="I">index</a></li> <li class="right" > <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index" >modules</a> |</li> <li class="right" > <a href="functional.html" title="Functional Programming HOWTO" accesskey="N">next</a> |</li> <li class="right" > <a href="descriptor.html" title="Descriptor HowTo Guide" accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li> <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt="" style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li> <li><a href="http://www.python.org/">Python</a> »</li> <li> <a href="../index.html">Python 2.7.5 documentation</a> » </li> <li><a href="index.html" accesskey="U">Python HOWTOs</a> »</li> </ul> </div> <div class="document"> <div class="documentwrapper"> <div class="bodywrapper"> <div class="body"> <div class="section" id="idioms-and-anti-idioms-in-python"> <h1>Idioms and Anti-Idioms in Python<a class="headerlink" href="#idioms-and-anti-idioms-in-python" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1> <table class="docutils field-list" frame="void" rules="none"> <col class="field-name" /> <col class="field-body" /> <tbody valign="top"> <tr class="field-odd field"><th class="field-name">Author:</th><td class="field-body">Moshe Zadka</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> This document is placed in the public domain. <div class="topic"> Abstract This document can be considered a companion to the tutorial. It shows how to use Python, and even more importantly, how not to use Python. </div> <div class="section" id="language-constructs-you-should-not-use"> <h2>Language Constructs You Should Not Use<a class="headerlink" href="#language-constructs-you-should-not-use" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> While Python has relatively few gotchas compared to other languages, it still has some constructs which are only useful in corner cases, or are plain dangerous. <div class="section" id="from-module-import"> <h3>from module import *<a class="headerlink" href="#from-module-import" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <div class="section" id="inside-function-definitions"> <h4>Inside Function Definitions<a class="headerlink" href="#inside-function-definitions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4> <tt class="docutils literal">from module import *</tt> is invalid inside function definitions. While many versions of Python do not check for the invalidity, it does not make it more valid, no more than having a smart lawyer makes a man innocent. Do not use it like that ever. Even in versions where it was accepted, it made the function execution slower, because the compiler could not be certain which names were local and which were global. In Python 2.1 this construct causes warnings, and sometimes even errors. </div> <div class="section" id="at-module-level"> <h4>At Module Level<a class="headerlink" href="#at-module-level" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4> While it is valid to use <tt class="docutils literal">from module import *</tt> at module level it is usually a bad idea. For one, this loses an important property Python otherwise has — you can know where each toplevel name is defined by a simple “search” function in your favourite editor. You also open yourself to trouble in the future, if some module grows additional functions or classes. One of the most awful questions asked on the newsgroup is why this code: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>f = open("www") f.read() </pre></div> </div> does not work. Of course, it works just fine (assuming you have a file called “www”.) But it does not work if somewhere in the module, the statement <tt class="docutils literal">from os import *</tt> is present. The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">os</tt></a> module has a function called <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">open()</tt></a> which returns an integer. While it is very useful, shadowing a builtin is one of its least useful properties. Remember, you can never know for sure what names a module exports, so either take what you need — <tt class="docutils literal">from module import name1, name2</tt>, or keep them in the module and access on a per-need basis — <tt class="docutils literal">import module;print module.name</tt>. </div> <div class="section" id="when-it-is-just-fine"> <h4>When It Is Just Fine<a class="headerlink" href="#when-it-is-just-fine" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h4> There are situations in which <tt class="docutils literal">from module import *</tt> is just fine: <ul class="simple"> <li>The interactive prompt. For example, <tt class="docutils literal">from math import *</tt> makes Python an amazing scientific calculator.</li> <li>When extending a module in C with a module in Python.</li> <li>When the module advertises itself as <tt class="docutils literal">from import *</tt> safe.</li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="unadorned-exec-execfile-and-friends"> <h3>Unadorned <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#exec"><tt class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal">exec</tt></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#execfile" title="execfile"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">execfile()</tt></a> and friends<a class="headerlink" href="#unadorned-exec-execfile-and-friends" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> The word “unadorned” refers to the use without an explicit dictionary, in which case those constructs evaluate code in the current environment. This is dangerous for the same reasons <tt class="docutils literal">from import *</tt> is dangerous — it might step over variables you are counting on and mess up things for the rest of your code. Simply do not do that. Bad examples: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> for name in sys.argv[1:]: >>> exec "%s=1" % name >>> def func(s, **kw): >>> for var, val in kw.items(): >>> exec "s.%s=val" % var # invalid! >>> execfile("handler.py") >>> handle() </pre></div> </div> Good examples: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> d = {} >>> for name in sys.argv[1:]: >>> d[name] = 1 >>> def func(s, **kw): >>> for var, val in kw.items(): >>> setattr(s, var, val) >>> d={} >>> execfile("handle.py", d, d) >>> handle = d['handle'] >>> handle() </pre></div> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="from-module-import-name1-name2"> <h3>from module import name1, name2<a class="headerlink" href="#from-module-import-name1-name2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> This is a “don’t” which is much weaker than the previous “don’t”s but is still something you should not do if you don’t have good reasons to do that. The reason it is usually a bad idea is because you suddenly have an object which lives in two separate namespaces. When the binding in one namespace changes, the binding in the other will not, so there will be a discrepancy between them. This happens when, for example, one module is reloaded, or changes the definition of a function at runtime. Bad example: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre># foo.py a = 1 # bar.py from foo import a if something(): a = 2 # danger: foo.a != a </pre></div> </div> Good example: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre># foo.py a = 1 # bar.py import foo if something(): foo.a = 2 </pre></div> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="except"> <h3>except:<a class="headerlink" href="#except" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> Python has the <tt class="docutils literal">except:</tt> clause, which catches all exceptions. Since every error in Python raises an exception, using <tt class="docutils literal">except:</tt> can make many programming errors look like runtime problems, which hinders the debugging process. The following code shows a great example of why this is bad: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>try: foo = opne("file") # misspelled "open" except: sys.exit("could not open file!") </pre></div> </div> The second line triggers a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#exceptions.NameError" title="exceptions.NameError"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">NameError</tt></a>, which is caught by the except clause. The program will exit, and the error message the program prints will make you think the problem is the readability of <tt class="docutils literal">"file"</tt> when in fact the real error has nothing to do with <tt class="docutils literal">"file"</tt>. A better way to write the above is <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>try: foo = opne("file") except IOError: sys.exit("could not open file") </pre></div> </div> When this is run, Python will produce a traceback showing the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#exceptions.NameError" title="exceptions.NameError"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">NameError</tt></a>, and it will be immediately apparent what needs to be fixed. Because <tt class="docutils literal">except:</tt> catches all exceptions, including <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#exceptions.SystemExit" title="exceptions.SystemExit"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">SystemExit</tt></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#exceptions.KeyboardInterrupt" title="exceptions.KeyboardInterrupt"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">KeyboardInterrupt</tt></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#exceptions.GeneratorExit" title="exceptions.GeneratorExit"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">GeneratorExit</tt></a> (which is not an error and should not normally be caught by user code), using a bare <tt class="docutils literal">except:</tt> is almost never a good idea. In situations where you need to catch all “normal” errors, such as in a framework that runs callbacks, you can catch the base class for all normal exceptions, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#exceptions.Exception" title="exceptions.Exception"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">Exception</tt></a>. Unfortunately in Python 2.x it is possible for third-party code to raise exceptions that do not inherit from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#exceptions.Exception" title="exceptions.Exception"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">Exception</tt></a>, so in Python 2.x there are some cases where you may have to use a bare <tt class="docutils literal">except:</tt> and manually re-raise the exceptions you don’t want to catch. </div> </div> <div class="section" id="exceptions"> <h2>Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> Exceptions are a useful feature of Python. You should learn to raise them whenever something unexpected occurs, and catch them only where you can do something about them. The following is a very popular anti-idiom <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>def get_status(file): if not os.path.exists(file): print "file not found" sys.exit(1) return open(file).readline() </pre></div> </div> Consider the case where the file gets deleted between the time the call to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#os.path.exists" title="os.path.exists"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">os.path.exists()</tt></a> is made and the time <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">open()</tt></a> is called. In that case the last line will raise an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#exceptions.IOError" title="exceptions.IOError"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">IOError</tt></a>. The same thing would happen if file exists but has no read permission. Since testing this on a normal machine on existent and non-existent files makes it seem bugless, the test results will seem fine, and the code will get shipped. Later an unhandled <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#exceptions.IOError" title="exceptions.IOError"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">IOError</tt></a> (or perhaps some other <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#exceptions.EnvironmentError" title="exceptions.EnvironmentError"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">EnvironmentError</tt></a>) escapes to the user, who gets to watch the ugly traceback. Here is a somewhat better way to do it. <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>def get_status(file): try: return open(file).readline() except EnvironmentError as err: print "Unable to open file: {}".format(err) sys.exit(1) </pre></div> </div> In this version, either the file gets opened and the line is read (so it works even on flaky NFS or SMB connections), or an error message is printed that provides all the available information on why the open failed, and the application is aborted. However, even this version of <tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">get_status()</tt> makes too many assumptions — that it will only be used in a short running script, and not, say, in a long running server. Sure, the caller could do something like <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>try: status = get_status(log) except SystemExit: status = None </pre></div> </div> But there is a better way. You should try to use as few <tt class="docutils literal">except</tt> clauses in your code as you can — the ones you do use will usually be inside calls which should always succeed, or a catch-all in a main function. So, an even better version of <tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">get_status()</tt> is probably <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>def get_status(file): return open(file).readline() </pre></div> </div> The caller can deal with the exception if it wants (for example, if it tries several files in a loop), or just let the exception filter upwards to its caller. But the last version still has a serious problem — due to implementation details in CPython, the file would not be closed when an exception is raised until the exception handler finishes; and, worse, in other implementations (e.g., Jython) it might not be closed at all regardless of whether or not an exception is raised. The best version of this function uses the <tt class="docutils literal">open()</tt> call as a context manager, which will ensure that the file gets closed as soon as the function returns: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>def get_status(file): with open(file) as fp: return fp.readline() </pre></div> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="using-the-batteries"> <h2>Using the Batteries<a class="headerlink" href="#using-the-batteries" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> Every so often, people seem to be writing stuff in the Python library again, usually poorly. While the occasional module has a poor interface, it is usually much better to use the rich standard library and data types that come with Python than inventing your own. A useful module very few people know about is <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">os.path</tt></a>. It always has the correct path arithmetic for your operating system, and will usually be much better than whatever you come up with yourself. Compare: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre># ugh! return dir+"/"+file # better return os.path.join(dir, file) </pre></div> </div> More useful functions in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">os.path</tt></a>: <tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">basename()</tt>, <tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">dirname()</tt> and <tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">splitext()</tt>. There are also many useful built-in functions people seem not to be aware of for some reason: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#min" title="min"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">min()</tt></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#max" title="max"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">max()</tt></a> can find the minimum/maximum of any sequence with comparable semantics, for example, yet many people write their own <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#max" title="max"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">max()</tt></a>/<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#min" title="min"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">min()</tt></a>. Another highly useful function is <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#reduce" title="reduce"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">reduce()</tt></a> which can be used to repeatly apply a binary operation to a sequence, reducing it to a single value. For example, compute a factorial with a series of multiply operations: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> n = 4 >>> import operator >>> reduce(operator.mul, range(1, n+1)) 24 </pre></div> </div> When it comes to parsing numbers, note that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">float()</tt></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">int()</tt></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#long" title="long"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">long()</tt></a> all accept string arguments and will reject ill-formed strings by raising an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#exceptions.ValueError" title="exceptions.ValueError"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">ValueError</tt></a>. </div> <div class="section" id="using-backslash-to-continue-statements"> <h2>Using Backslash to Continue Statements<a class="headerlink" href="#using-backslash-to-continue-statements" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> Since Python treats a newline as a statement terminator, and since statements are often more than is comfortable to put in one line, many people do: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>if foo.bar()['first'][0] == baz.quux(1, 2)[5:9] and \ calculate_number(10, 20) != forbulate(500, 360): pass </pre></div> </div> You should realize that this is dangerous: a stray space after the <tt class="docutils literal">\</tt> would make this line wrong, and stray spaces are notoriously hard to see in editors. In this case, at least it would be a syntax error, but if the code was: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>value = foo.bar()['first'][0]*baz.quux(1, 2)[5:9] \ + calculate_number(10, 20)*forbulate(500, 360) </pre></div> </div> then it would just be subtly wrong. It is usually much better to use the implicit continuation inside parenthesis: This version is bulletproof: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>value = (foo.bar()['first'][0]*baz.quux(1, 2)[5:9] + calculate_number(10, 20)*forbulate(500, 360)) </pre></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="sphinxsidebar"> <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper"> <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table Of Contents</a></h3> <ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Idioms and Anti-Idioms in Python</a><ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#language-constructs-you-should-not-use">Language Constructs You Should Not Use</a><ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#from-module-import">from module import *</a><ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#inside-function-definitions">Inside Function Definitions</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#at-module-level">At Module Level</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#when-it-is-just-fine">When It Is Just Fine</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#unadorned-exec-execfile-and-friends">Unadorned <tt class="docutils literal">exec</tt>, <tt class="docutils literal">execfile()</tt> and friends</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#from-module-import-name1-name2">from module import name1, name2</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#except">except:</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-the-batteries">Using the Batteries</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#using-backslash-to-continue-statements">Using Backslash to Continue Statements</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h4>Previous topic</h4> <a href="descriptor.html" title="previous chapter">Descriptor HowTo Guide</a> <h4>Next topic</h4> <a href="functional.html" title="next chapter">Functional Programming HOWTO</a> <h3>This Page</h3> <ul class="this-page-menu"> <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li> <li><a href="../_sources/howto/doanddont.txt" rel="nofollow">Show Source</a></li> </ul> <div id="searchbox" style="display: none"> <h3>Quick search</h3> <form class="search" action="../search.html" method="get"> <input type="text" name="q" /> <input type="submit" value="Go" /> <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" /> <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" /> </form> Enter search terms or a module, class or function name. </div> <script type="text/javascript">$('#searchbox').show(0);</script> </div> </div> <div class="clearer"></div> </div> <div class="related"> <h3>Navigation</h3> <ul> <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px"> <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index" >index</a></li> <li class="right" > <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index" >modules</a> |</li> <li class="right" > <a href="functional.html" title="Functional Programming HOWTO" >next</a> |</li> <li class="right" > <a href="descriptor.html" title="Descriptor HowTo Guide" >previous</a> |</li> <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt="" style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li> <li><a href="http://www.python.org/">Python</a> »</li> <li> <a href="../index.html">Python 2.7.5 documentation</a> » </li> <li><a href="index.html" >Python HOWTOs</a> »</li> </ul> </div> <div class="footer"> © <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 1990-2019, Python Software Foundation. The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation. <a href="http://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a> Last updated on Jul 03, 2019. <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>? Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 1.1.3. </div> </body> </html>

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