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<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <title>32. Python compiler package — Python 2.7.5 documentation</title> <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/default.css" type="text/css" /> <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" /> <script type="text/javascript"> var DOCUMENTATION_OPTIONS = { URL_ROOT: '../', VERSION: '2.7.5', COLLAPSE_INDEX: false, FILE_SUFFIX: '.html', HAS_SOURCE: true }; </script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" title="Search within Python 2.7.5 documentation" href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/> <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" /> <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" /> <link rel="top" title="Python 2.7.5 documentation" href="../index.html" /> <link rel="up" title="The Python Standard Library" href="index.html" /> <link rel="next" title="33. Miscellaneous Services" href="misc.html" /> <link rel="prev" title="31.13. pickletools — Tools for pickle developers" href="pickletools.html" /> <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" /> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script> </head> <body> <div class="related"> <h3>Navigation</h3> <ul> <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px"> <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index" accesskey="I">index</a></li> <li class="right" > <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index" >modules</a> |</li> <li class="right" > <a href="misc.html" title="33. Miscellaneous Services" accesskey="N">next</a> |</li> <li class="right" > <a href="pickletools.html" title="31.13. pickletools — Tools for pickle developers" accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li> <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt="" style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li> <li><a href="http://www.python.org/">Python</a> »</li> <li> <a href="../index.html">Python 2.7.5 documentation</a> » </li> <li><a href="index.html" accesskey="U">The Python Standard Library</a> »</li> </ul> </div> <div class="document"> <div class="documentwrapper"> <div class="bodywrapper"> <div class="body"> <div class="section" id="python-compiler-package"> <h1>32. Python compiler package<a class="headerlink" href="#python-compiler-package" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1> Deprecated since version 2.6: The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-compiler" title="compiler: Python code compiler written in Python. (deprecated)"><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">compiler</tt></a> package has been removed in Python 3. The Python compiler package is a tool for analyzing Python source code and generating Python bytecode. The compiler contains libraries to generate an abstract syntax tree from Python source code and to generate Python <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytecode">bytecode</a> from the tree. The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-compiler" title="compiler: Python code compiler written in Python. (deprecated)"><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">compiler</tt></a> package is a Python source to bytecode translator written in Python. It uses the built-in parser and standard <a class="reference internal" href="parser.html#module-parser" title="parser: Access parse trees for Python source code."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">parser</tt></a> module to generate a concrete syntax tree. This tree is used to generate an abstract syntax tree (AST) and then Python bytecode. The full functionality of the package duplicates the built-in compiler provided with the Python interpreter. It is intended to match its behavior almost exactly. Why implement another compiler that does the same thing? The package is useful for a variety of purposes. It can be modified more easily than the built-in compiler. The AST it generates is useful for analyzing Python source code. This chapter explains how the various components of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-compiler" title="compiler: Python code compiler written in Python. (deprecated)"><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">compiler</tt></a> package work. It blends reference material with a tutorial. <div class="section" id="module-compiler"> <h2>32.1. The basic interface<a class="headerlink" href="#module-compiler" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> The top-level of the package defines four functions. If you import <a class="reference internal" href="#module-compiler" title="compiler: Python code compiler written in Python. (deprecated)"><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">compiler</tt></a>, you will get these functions and a collection of modules contained in the package. <dl class="function"> <dt id="compiler.parse"> <tt class="descclassname">compiler.</tt><tt class="descname">parse</tt><big>(</big>buf<big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#compiler.parse" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Returns an abstract syntax tree for the Python source code in buf. The function raises <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#exceptions.SyntaxError" title="exceptions.SyntaxError"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">SyntaxError</tt></a> if there is an error in the source code. The return value is a <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">compiler.ast.Module</tt> instance that contains the tree. </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="compiler.parseFile"> <tt class="descclassname">compiler.</tt><tt class="descname">parseFile</tt><big>(</big>path<big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#compiler.parseFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Return an abstract syntax tree for the Python source code in the file specified by path. It is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal">parse(open(path).read())</tt>. </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="compiler.walk"> <tt class="descclassname">compiler.</tt><tt class="descname">walk</tt><big>(</big>ast, visitor[, verbose]<big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#compiler.walk" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Do a pre-order walk over the abstract syntax tree ast. Call the appropriate method on the visitor instance for each node encountered. </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="compiler.compile"> <tt class="descclassname">compiler.</tt><tt class="descname">compile</tt><big>(</big>source, filename, mode, flags=None, dont_inherit=None<big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#compiler.compile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Compile the string source, a Python module, statement or expression, into a code object that can be executed by the exec statement or <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#eval" title="eval"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">eval()</tt></a>. This function is a replacement for the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#compile" title="compile"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">compile()</tt></a> function. The filename will be used for run-time error messages. The mode must be ‘exec’ to compile a module, ‘single’ to compile a single (interactive) statement, or ‘eval’ to compile an expression. The flags and dont_inherit arguments affect future-related statements, but are not supported yet. </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="compiler.compileFile"> <tt class="descclassname">compiler.</tt><tt class="descname">compileFile</tt><big>(</big>source<big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#compiler.compileFile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Compiles the file source and generates a .pyc file. </dd></dl> The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-compiler" title="compiler: Python code compiler written in Python. (deprecated)"><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">compiler</tt></a> package contains the following modules: <a class="reference internal" href="ast.html#module-ast" title="ast: Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">ast</tt></a>, <tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">consts</tt>, <tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">future</tt>, <tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">misc</tt>, <tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pyassem</tt>, <tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pycodegen</tt>, <tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">symbols</tt>, <tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">transformer</tt>, and <tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">visitor</tt>. </div> <div class="section" id="limitations"> <h2>32.2. Limitations<a class="headerlink" href="#limitations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> There are some problems with the error checking of the compiler package. The interpreter detects syntax errors in two distinct phases. One set of errors is detected by the interpreter’s parser, the other set by the compiler. The compiler package relies on the interpreter’s parser, so it get the first phases of error checking for free. It implements the second phase itself, and that implementation is incomplete. For example, the compiler package does not raise an error if a name appears more than once in an argument list: <tt class="docutils literal">def f(x, x): ...</tt> A future version of the compiler should fix these problems. </div> <div class="section" id="python-abstract-syntax"> <h2>32.3. Python Abstract Syntax<a class="headerlink" href="#python-abstract-syntax" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-compiler.ast" title="compiler.ast"><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">compiler.ast</tt></a> module defines an abstract syntax for Python. In the abstract syntax tree, each node represents a syntactic construct. The root of the tree is <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Module</tt> object. The abstract syntax offers a higher level interface to parsed Python source code. The <a class="reference internal" href="parser.html#module-parser" title="parser: Access parse trees for Python source code."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">parser</tt></a> module and the compiler written in C for the Python interpreter use a concrete syntax tree. The concrete syntax is tied closely to the grammar description used for the Python parser. Instead of a single node for a construct, there are often several levels of nested nodes that are introduced by Python’s precedence rules. The abstract syntax tree is created by the <tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">compiler.transformer</tt> module. The transformer relies on the built-in Python parser to generate a concrete syntax tree. It generates an abstract syntax tree from the concrete tree. The <tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">transformer</tt> module was created by Greg Stein and Bill Tutt for an experimental Python-to-C compiler. The current version contains a number of modifications and improvements, but the basic form of the abstract syntax and of the transformer are due to Stein and Tutt. <div class="section" id="module-compiler.ast"> <h3>32.3.1. AST Nodes<a class="headerlink" href="#module-compiler.ast" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-compiler.ast" title="compiler.ast"><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">compiler.ast</tt></a> module is generated from a text file that describes each node type and its elements. Each node type is represented as a class that inherits from the abstract base class <a class="reference internal" href="#compiler.ast.Node" title="compiler.ast.Node"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">compiler.ast.Node</tt></a> and defines a set of named attributes for child nodes. <dl class="class"> <dt id="compiler.ast.Node"> class <tt class="descclassname">compiler.ast.</tt><tt class="descname">Node</tt><a class="headerlink" href="#compiler.ast.Node" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>The <a class="reference internal" href="#compiler.ast.Node" title="compiler.ast.Node"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Node</tt></a> instances are created automatically by the parser generator. The recommended interface for specific <a class="reference internal" href="#compiler.ast.Node" title="compiler.ast.Node"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Node</tt></a> instances is to use the public attributes to access child nodes. A public attribute may be bound to a single node or to a sequence of nodes, depending on the <a class="reference internal" href="#compiler.ast.Node" title="compiler.ast.Node"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Node</tt></a> type. For example, the <tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">bases</tt> attribute of the <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Class</tt> node, is bound to a list of base class nodes, and the <tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">doc</tt> attribute is bound to a single node. Each <a class="reference internal" href="#compiler.ast.Node" title="compiler.ast.Node"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Node</tt></a> instance has a <tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">lineno</tt> attribute which may be <tt class="docutils literal">None</tt>. XXX Not sure what the rules are for which nodes will have a useful lineno. All <a class="reference internal" href="#compiler.ast.Node" title="compiler.ast.Node"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Node</tt></a> objects offer the following methods: <dl class="method"> <dt id="compiler.ast.Node.getChildren"> <tt class="descname">getChildren</tt><big>(</big><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#compiler.ast.Node.getChildren" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Returns a flattened list of the child nodes and objects in the order they occur. Specifically, the order of the nodes is the order in which they appear in the Python grammar. Not all of the children are <a class="reference internal" href="#compiler.ast.Node" title="compiler.ast.Node"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Node</tt></a> instances. The names of functions and classes, for example, are plain strings. </dd></dl> <dl class="method"> <dt id="compiler.ast.Node.getChildNodes"> <tt class="descname">getChildNodes</tt><big>(</big><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#compiler.ast.Node.getChildNodes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Returns a flattened list of the child nodes in the order they occur. This method is like <a class="reference internal" href="#compiler.ast.Node.getChildren" title="compiler.ast.Node.getChildren"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">getChildren()</tt></a>, except that it only returns those children that are <a class="reference internal" href="#compiler.ast.Node" title="compiler.ast.Node"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Node</tt></a> instances. </dd></dl> </dd></dl> Two examples illustrate the general structure of <a class="reference internal" href="#compiler.ast.Node" title="compiler.ast.Node"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Node</tt></a> classes. The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#while"><tt class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal">while</tt></a> statement is defined by the following grammar production: <div class="highlight-python"><pre>while_stmt: "while" expression ":" suite ["else" ":" suite]</pre> </div> The <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">While</tt> node has three attributes: <a class="reference internal" href="test.html#module-test" title="test: Regression tests package containing the testing suite for Python."><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">test</tt></a>, <tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">body</tt>, and <tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">else_</tt>. (If the natural name for an attribute is also a Python reserved word, it can’t be used as an attribute name. An underscore is appended to the word to make it a legal identifier, hence <tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">else_</tt> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#else"><tt class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal">else</tt></a>.) The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><tt class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal">if</tt></a> statement is more complicated because it can include several tests. <div class="highlight-python"><pre>if_stmt: 'if' test ':' suite ('elif' test ':' suite)* ['else' ':' suite]</pre> </div> The <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">If</tt> node only defines two attributes: <tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">tests</tt> and <tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">else_</tt>. The <tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">tests</tt> attribute is a sequence of test expression, consequent body pairs. There is one pair for each <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><tt class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal">if</tt></a>/<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#elif"><tt class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal">elif</tt></a> clause. The first element of the pair is the test expression. The second elements is a <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Stmt</tt> node that contains the code to execute if the test is true. The <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">getChildren()</tt> method of <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">If</tt> returns a flat list of child nodes. If there are three <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#if"><tt class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal">if</tt></a>/<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#elif"><tt class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal">elif</tt></a> clauses and no <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#else"><tt class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal">else</tt></a> clause, then <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">getChildren()</tt> will return a list of six elements: the first test expression, the first <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Stmt</tt>, the second text expression, etc. The following table lists each of the <a class="reference internal" href="#compiler.ast.Node" title="compiler.ast.Node"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Node</tt></a> subclasses defined in <a class="reference internal" href="#module-compiler.ast" title="compiler.ast"><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">compiler.ast</tt></a> and each of the public attributes available on their instances. The values of most of the attributes are themselves <a class="reference internal" href="#compiler.ast.Node" title="compiler.ast.Node"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Node</tt></a> instances or sequences of instances. When the value is something other than an instance, the type is noted in the comment. The attributes are listed in the order in which they are returned by <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">getChildren()</tt> and <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">getChildNodes()</tt>. <table border="1" class="docutils"> <colgroup> <col width="30%" /> <col width="26%" /> <col width="43%" /> </colgroup> <thead valign="bottom"> <tr class="row-odd"><th class="head">Node type</th> <th class="head">Attribute</th> <th class="head">Value</th> </tr> </thead> <tbody valign="top"> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Add</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">left</tt></td> <td>left operand</td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">right</tt></td> <td>right operand</td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">And</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">nodes</tt></td> <td>list of operands</td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">AssAttr</tt></td> <td> </td> <td>attribute as target of assignment</td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">expr</tt></td> <td>expression on the left-hand side of the dot</td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">attrname</tt></td> <td>the attribute name, a string</td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">flags</tt></td> <td>XXX</td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">AssList</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">nodes</tt></td> <td>list of list elements being assigned to</td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">AssName</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">name</tt></td> <td>name being assigned to</td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">flags</tt></td> <td>XXX</td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">AssTuple</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">nodes</tt></td> <td>list of tuple elements being assigned to</td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Assert</tt></td> <td><a class="reference internal" href="test.html#module-test" title="test: Regression tests package containing the testing suite for Python."><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">test</tt></a></td> <td>the expression to be tested</td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">fail</tt></td> <td>the value of the <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#exceptions.AssertionError" title="exceptions.AssertionError"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">AssertionError</tt></a></td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Assign</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">nodes</tt></td> <td>a list of assignment targets, one per equal sign</td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">expr</tt></td> <td>the value being assigned</td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">AugAssign</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">node</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">op</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">expr</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Backquote</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">expr</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Bitand</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">nodes</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Bitor</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">nodes</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Bitxor</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">nodes</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Break</tt></td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">CallFunc</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">node</tt></td> <td>expression for the callee</td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">args</tt></td> <td>a list of arguments</td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">star_args</tt></td> <td>the extended *-arg value</td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">dstar_args</tt></td> <td>the extended **-arg value</td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Class</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">name</tt></td> <td>the name of the class, a string</td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">bases</tt></td> <td>a list of base classes</td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">doc</tt></td> <td>doc string, a string or <tt class="docutils literal">None</tt></td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><a class="reference internal" href="code.html#module-code" title="code: Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops."><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">code</tt></a></td> <td>the body of the class statement</td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Compare</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">expr</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">ops</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Const</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">value</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Continue</tt></td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Decorators</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">nodes</tt></td> <td>List of function decorator expressions</td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Dict</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">items</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Discard</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">expr</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Div</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">left</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">right</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#Ellipsis" title="Ellipsis"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Ellipsis</tt></a></td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Expression</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">node</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Exec</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">expr</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#locals" title="locals"><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">locals</tt></a></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#globals" title="globals"><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">globals</tt></a></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">FloorDiv</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">left</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">right</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">For</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">assign</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#list" title="list"><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">list</tt></a></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">body</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">else_</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">From</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">modname</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">names</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Function</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">decorators</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Decorators</tt> or <tt class="docutils literal">None</tt></td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">name</tt></td> <td>name used in def, a string</td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">argnames</tt></td> <td>list of argument names, as strings</td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">defaults</tt></td> <td>list of default values</td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">flags</tt></td> <td>xxx</td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">doc</tt></td> <td>doc string, a string or <tt class="docutils literal">None</tt></td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><a class="reference internal" href="code.html#module-code" title="code: Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops."><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">code</tt></a></td> <td>the body of the function</td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">GenExpr</tt></td> <td><a class="reference internal" href="code.html#module-code" title="code: Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops."><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">code</tt></a></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">GenExprFor</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">assign</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#iter" title="iter"><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">iter</tt></a></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">ifs</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">GenExprIf</tt></td> <td><a class="reference internal" href="test.html#module-test" title="test: Regression tests package containing the testing suite for Python."><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">test</tt></a></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">GenExprInner</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">expr</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">quals</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Getattr</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">expr</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">attrname</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Global</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">names</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">If</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">tests</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">else_</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Import</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">names</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Invert</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">expr</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Keyword</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">name</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">expr</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Lambda</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">argnames</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">defaults</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">flags</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><a class="reference internal" href="code.html#module-code" title="code: Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops."><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">code</tt></a></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">LeftShift</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">left</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">right</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">List</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">nodes</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">ListComp</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">expr</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">quals</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">ListCompFor</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">assign</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#list" title="list"><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">list</tt></a></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">ifs</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">ListCompIf</tt></td> <td><a class="reference internal" href="test.html#module-test" title="test: Regression tests package containing the testing suite for Python."><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">test</tt></a></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Mod</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">left</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">right</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Module</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">doc</tt></td> <td>doc string, a string or <tt class="docutils literal">None</tt></td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">node</tt></td> <td>body of the module, a <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Stmt</tt></td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Mul</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">left</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">right</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Name</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">name</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Not</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">expr</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Or</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">nodes</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Pass</tt></td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Power</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">left</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">right</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Print</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">nodes</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">dest</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Printnl</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">nodes</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">dest</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Raise</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">expr1</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">expr2</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">expr3</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Return</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">value</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">RightShift</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">left</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">right</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Slice</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">expr</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">flags</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">lower</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">upper</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Sliceobj</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">nodes</tt></td> <td>list of statements</td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Stmt</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">nodes</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Sub</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">left</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">right</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Subscript</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">expr</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">flags</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">subs</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">TryExcept</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">body</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">handlers</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">else_</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">TryFinally</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">body</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">final</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Tuple</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">nodes</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">UnaryAdd</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">expr</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">UnarySub</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">expr</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">While</tt></td> <td><a class="reference internal" href="test.html#module-test" title="test: Regression tests package containing the testing suite for Python."><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">test</tt></a></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">body</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">else_</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">With</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">expr</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td> </td> <td><a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#vars" title="vars"><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">vars</tt></a></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td> </td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">body</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Yield</tt></td> <td><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">value</tt></td> <td> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> <div class="section" id="assignment-nodes"> <h3>32.3.2. Assignment nodes<a class="headerlink" href="#assignment-nodes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> There is a collection of nodes used to represent assignments. Each assignment statement in the source code becomes a single <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Assign</tt> node in the AST. The <tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">nodes</tt> attribute is a list that contains a node for each assignment target. This is necessary because assignment can be chained, e.g. <tt class="docutils literal">a = b = 2</tt>. Each <a class="reference internal" href="#compiler.ast.Node" title="compiler.ast.Node"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Node</tt></a> in the list will be one of the following classes: <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">AssAttr</tt>, <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">AssList</tt>, <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">AssName</tt>, or <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">AssTuple</tt>. Each target assignment node will describe the kind of object being assigned to: <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">AssName</tt> for a simple name, e.g. <tt class="docutils literal">a = 1</tt>. <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">AssAttr</tt> for an attribute assigned, e.g. <tt class="docutils literal">a.x = 1</tt>. <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">AssList</tt> and <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">AssTuple</tt> for list and tuple expansion respectively, e.g. <tt class="docutils literal">a, b, c = a_tuple</tt>. The target assignment nodes also have a <tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">flags</tt> attribute that indicates whether the node is being used for assignment or in a delete statement. The <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">AssName</tt> is also used to represent a delete statement, e.g. <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">del x</tt>. When an expression contains several attribute references, an assignment or delete statement will contain only one <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">AssAttr</tt> node – for the final attribute reference. The other attribute references will be represented as <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Getattr</tt> nodes in the <tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">expr</tt> attribute of the <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">AssAttr</tt> instance. </div> <div class="section" id="examples"> <h3>32.3.3. Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> This section shows several simple examples of ASTs for Python source code. The examples demonstrate how to use the <tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">parse()</tt> function, what the repr of an AST looks like, and how to access attributes of an AST node. The first module defines a single function. Assume it is stored in <tt class="file docutils literal">doublelib.py</tt>. <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>"""This is an example module. This is the docstring. """ def double(x): "Return twice the argument" return x * 2 </pre></div> </div> In the interactive interpreter session below, I have reformatted the long AST reprs for readability. The AST reprs use unqualified class names. If you want to create an instance from a repr, you must import the class names from the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-compiler.ast" title="compiler.ast"><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">compiler.ast</tt></a> module. <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> import compiler >>> mod = compiler.parseFile("doublelib.py") >>> mod Module('This is an example module.\n\nThis is the docstring.\n', Stmt([Function(None, 'double', ['x'], [], 0, 'Return twice the argument', Stmt([Return(Mul((Name('x'), Const(2))))]))])) >>> from compiler.ast import * >>> Module('This is an example module.\n\nThis is the docstring.\n', ... Stmt([Function(None, 'double', ['x'], [], 0, ... 'Return twice the argument', ... Stmt([Return(Mul((Name('x'), Const(2))))]))])) Module('This is an example module.\n\nThis is the docstring.\n', Stmt([Function(None, 'double', ['x'], [], 0, 'Return twice the argument', Stmt([Return(Mul((Name('x'), Const(2))))]))])) >>> mod.doc 'This is an example module.\n\nThis is the docstring.\n' >>> for node in mod.node.nodes: ... print node ... Function(None, 'double', ['x'], [], 0, 'Return twice the argument', Stmt([Return(Mul((Name('x'), Const(2))))])) >>> func = mod.node.nodes[0] >>> func.code Stmt([Return(Mul((Name('x'), Const(2))))]) </pre></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="module-compiler.visitor"> <h2>32.4. Using Visitors to Walk ASTs<a class="headerlink" href="#module-compiler.visitor" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> The visitor pattern is ... The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-compiler" title="compiler: Python code compiler written in Python. (deprecated)"><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">compiler</tt></a> package uses a variant on the visitor pattern that takes advantage of Python’s introspection features to eliminate the need for much of the visitor’s infrastructure. The classes being visited do not need to be programmed to accept visitors. The visitor need only define visit methods for classes it is specifically interested in; a default visit method can handle the rest. XXX The magic <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">visit()</tt> method for visitors. <dl class="function"> <dt id="compiler.visitor.walk"> <tt class="descclassname">compiler.visitor.</tt><tt class="descname">walk</tt><big>(</big>tree, visitor[, verbose]<big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#compiler.visitor.walk" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd></dd></dl> <dl class="class"> <dt id="compiler.visitor.ASTVisitor"> class <tt class="descclassname">compiler.visitor.</tt><tt class="descname">ASTVisitor</tt><a class="headerlink" href="#compiler.visitor.ASTVisitor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>The <a class="reference internal" href="#compiler.visitor.ASTVisitor" title="compiler.visitor.ASTVisitor"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">ASTVisitor</tt></a> is responsible for walking over the tree in the correct order. A walk begins with a call to <a class="reference internal" href="#compiler.visitor.ASTVisitor.preorder" title="compiler.visitor.ASTVisitor.preorder"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">preorder()</tt></a>. For each node, it checks the visitor argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#compiler.visitor.ASTVisitor.preorder" title="compiler.visitor.ASTVisitor.preorder"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">preorder()</tt></a> for a method named ‘visitNodeType,’ where NodeType is the name of the node’s class, e.g. for a <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">While</tt> node a <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">visitWhile()</tt> would be called. If the method exists, it is called with the node as its first argument. The visitor method for a particular node type can control how child nodes are visited during the walk. The <a class="reference internal" href="#compiler.visitor.ASTVisitor" title="compiler.visitor.ASTVisitor"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">ASTVisitor</tt></a> modifies the visitor argument by adding a visit method to the visitor; this method can be used to visit a particular child node. If no visitor is found for a particular node type, the <a class="reference internal" href="#compiler.visitor.ASTVisitor.default" title="compiler.visitor.ASTVisitor.default"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">default()</tt></a> method is called. <a class="reference internal" href="#compiler.visitor.ASTVisitor" title="compiler.visitor.ASTVisitor"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">ASTVisitor</tt></a> objects have the following methods: XXX describe extra arguments <dl class="method"> <dt id="compiler.visitor.ASTVisitor.default"> <tt class="descname">default</tt><big>(</big>node[, ...]<big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#compiler.visitor.ASTVisitor.default" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd></dd></dl> <dl class="method"> <dt id="compiler.visitor.ASTVisitor.dispatch"> <tt class="descname">dispatch</tt><big>(</big>node[, ...]<big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#compiler.visitor.ASTVisitor.dispatch" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd></dd></dl> <dl class="method"> <dt id="compiler.visitor.ASTVisitor.preorder"> <tt class="descname">preorder</tt><big>(</big>tree, visitor<big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#compiler.visitor.ASTVisitor.preorder" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd></dd></dl> </dd></dl> </div> <div class="section" id="bytecode-generation"> <h2>32.5. Bytecode Generation<a class="headerlink" href="#bytecode-generation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> The code generator is a visitor that emits bytecodes. Each visit method can call the <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">emit()</tt> method to emit a new bytecode. The basic code generator is specialized for modules, classes, and functions. An assembler converts that emitted instructions to the low-level bytecode format. It handles things like generation of constant lists of code objects and calculation of jump offsets. </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="sphinxsidebar"> <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper"> <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table Of Contents</a></h3> <ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#">32. Python compiler package</a><ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-compiler">32.1. The basic interface</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#limitations">32.2. Limitations</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#python-abstract-syntax">32.3. Python Abstract Syntax</a><ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-compiler.ast">32.3.1. AST Nodes</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#assignment-nodes">32.3.2. Assignment nodes</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#examples">32.3.3. Examples</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-compiler.visitor">32.4. Using Visitors to Walk ASTs</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#bytecode-generation">32.5. Bytecode Generation</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h4>Previous topic</h4> <a href="pickletools.html" title="previous chapter">31.13. <tt class="docutils literal">pickletools</tt> — Tools for pickle developers</a> <h4>Next topic</h4> <a href="misc.html" title="next chapter">33. Miscellaneous Services</a> <h3>This Page</h3> <ul class="this-page-menu"> <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li> <li><a href="../_sources/library/compiler.txt" rel="nofollow">Show Source</a></li> </ul> <div id="searchbox" style="display: none"> <h3>Quick search</h3> <form class="search" action="../search.html" method="get"> <input type="text" name="q" /> <input type="submit" value="Go" /> <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" /> <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" /> </form> Enter search terms or a module, class or function name. </div> <script type="text/javascript">$('#searchbox').show(0);</script> </div> </div> <div class="clearer"></div> </div> <div class="related"> <h3>Navigation</h3> <ul> <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px"> <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index" >index</a></li> <li class="right" > <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index" >modules</a> |</li> <li class="right" > <a href="misc.html" title="33. 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