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<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <title>11.1. pickle — Python object serialization — Python 2.7.5 documentation</title> <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/default.css" type="text/css" /> <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" /> <script type="text/javascript"> var DOCUMENTATION_OPTIONS = { URL_ROOT: '../', VERSION: '2.7.5', COLLAPSE_INDEX: false, FILE_SUFFIX: '.html', HAS_SOURCE: true }; </script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" title="Search within Python 2.7.5 documentation" href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/> <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" /> <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" /> <link rel="top" title="Python 2.7.5 documentation" href="../index.html" /> <link rel="up" title="11. 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Data Persistence</a> »</li> </ul> </div> <div class="document"> <div class="documentwrapper"> <div class="bodywrapper"> <div class="body"> <div class="section" id="pickle-python-object-serialization"> <h1>11.1. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> — Python object serialization<a class="headerlink" href="#pickle-python-object-serialization" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1> The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> module implements a fundamental, but powerful algorithm for serializing and de-serializing a Python object structure. “Pickling” is the process whereby a Python object hierarchy is converted into a byte stream, and “unpickling” is the inverse operation, whereby a byte stream is converted back into an object hierarchy. Pickling (and unpickling) is alternatively known as “serialization”, “marshalling,” <a class="footnote-reference" href="#id11" id="id1">[1]</a> or “flattening”, however, to avoid confusion, the terms used here are “pickling” and “unpickling”. This documentation describes both the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> module and the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle" title="cPickle: Faster version of pickle, but not subclassable."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">cPickle</tt></a> module. <div class="admonition warning"> Warning The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> module is not intended to be secure against erroneous or maliciously constructed data. Never unpickle data received from an untrusted or unauthenticated source. </div> <div class="section" id="relationship-to-other-python-modules"> <h2>11.1.1. Relationship to other Python modules<a class="headerlink" href="#relationship-to-other-python-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> module has an optimized cousin called the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle" title="cPickle: Faster version of pickle, but not subclassable."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">cPickle</tt></a> module. As its name implies, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle" title="cPickle: Faster version of pickle, but not subclassable."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">cPickle</tt></a> is written in C, so it can be up to 1000 times faster than <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a>. However it does not support subclassing of the <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Pickler" title="pickle.Pickler"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">Pickler()</tt></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Unpickler" title="pickle.Unpickler"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">Unpickler()</tt></a> classes, because in <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle" title="cPickle: Faster version of pickle, but not subclassable."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">cPickle</tt></a> these are functions, not classes. Most applications have no need for this functionality, and can benefit from the improved performance of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle" title="cPickle: Faster version of pickle, but not subclassable."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">cPickle</tt></a>. Other than that, the interfaces of the two modules are nearly identical; the common interface is described in this manual and differences are pointed out where necessary. In the following discussions, we use the term “pickle” to collectively describe the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle" title="cPickle: Faster version of pickle, but not subclassable."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">cPickle</tt></a> modules. The data streams the two modules produce are guaranteed to be interchangeable. Python has a more primitive serialization module called <a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">marshal</tt></a>, but in general <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> should always be the preferred way to serialize Python objects. <a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">marshal</tt></a> exists primarily to support Python’s <tt class="file docutils literal">.pyc</tt> files. The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> module differs from <a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">marshal</tt></a> in several significant ways: <ul> <li>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> module keeps track of the objects it has already serialized, so that later references to the same object won’t be serialized again. <a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">marshal</tt></a> doesn’t do this. This has implications both for recursive objects and object sharing. Recursive objects are objects that contain references to themselves. These are not handled by marshal, and in fact, attempting to marshal recursive objects will crash your Python interpreter. Object sharing happens when there are multiple references to the same object in different places in the object hierarchy being serialized. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> stores such objects only once, and ensures that all other references point to the master copy. Shared objects remain shared, which can be very important for mutable objects. </li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">marshal</tt></a> cannot be used to serialize user-defined classes and their instances. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> can save and restore class instances transparently, however the class definition must be importable and live in the same module as when the object was stored. </li> <li>The <a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">marshal</tt></a> serialization format is not guaranteed to be portable across Python versions. Because its primary job in life is to support <tt class="file docutils literal">.pyc</tt> files, the Python implementers reserve the right to change the serialization format in non-backwards compatible ways should the need arise. The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> serialization format is guaranteed to be backwards compatible across Python releases. </li> </ul> Note that serialization is a more primitive notion than persistence; although <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> reads and writes file objects, it does not handle the issue of naming persistent objects, nor the (even more complicated) issue of concurrent access to persistent objects. The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> module can transform a complex object into a byte stream and it can transform the byte stream into an object with the same internal structure. Perhaps the most obvious thing to do with these byte streams is to write them onto a file, but it is also conceivable to send them across a network or store them in a database. The module <a class="reference internal" href="shelve.html#module-shelve" title="shelve: Python object persistence."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">shelve</tt></a> provides a simple interface to pickle and unpickle objects on DBM-style database files. </div> <div class="section" id="data-stream-format"> <h2>11.1.2. Data stream format<a class="headerlink" href="#data-stream-format" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> The data format used by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> is Python-specific. This has the advantage that there are no restrictions imposed by external standards such as XDR (which can’t represent pointer sharing); however it means that non-Python programs may not be able to reconstruct pickled Python objects. By default, the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> data format uses a printable ASCII representation. This is slightly more voluminous than a binary representation. The big advantage of using printable ASCII (and of some other characteristics of <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a>‘s representation) is that for debugging or recovery purposes it is possible for a human to read the pickled file with a standard text editor. There are currently 3 different protocols which can be used for pickling. <ul class="simple"> <li>Protocol version 0 is the original ASCII protocol and is backwards compatible with earlier versions of Python.</li> <li>Protocol version 1 is the old binary format which is also compatible with earlier versions of Python.</li> <li>Protocol version 2 was introduced in Python 2.3. It provides much more efficient pickling of <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-new-style-class">new-style class</a>es.</li> </ul> Refer to <a class="pep reference external" href="http://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0307">PEP 307</a> for more information. If a protocol is not specified, protocol 0 is used. If protocol is specified as a negative value or <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL" title="pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL"><tt class="xref py py-const docutils literal">HIGHEST_PROTOCOL</tt></a>, the highest protocol version available will be used. Changed in version 2.3: Introduced the protocol parameter. A binary format, which is slightly more efficient, can be chosen by specifying a protocol version >= 1. </div> <div class="section" id="usage"> <h2>11.1.3. Usage<a class="headerlink" href="#usage" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> To serialize an object hierarchy, you first create a pickler, then you call the pickler’s <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.dump" title="pickle.dump"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">dump()</tt></a> method. To de-serialize a data stream, you first create an unpickler, then you call the unpickler’s <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.load" title="pickle.load"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">load()</tt></a> method. The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> module provides the following constant: <dl class="data"> <dt id="pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL"> <tt class="descclassname">pickle.</tt><tt class="descname">HIGHEST_PROTOCOL</tt><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>The highest protocol version available. This value can be passed as a protocol value. New in version 2.3. </dd></dl> <div class="admonition note"> Note Be sure to always open pickle files created with protocols >= 1 in binary mode. For the old ASCII-based pickle protocol 0 you can use either text mode or binary mode as long as you stay consistent. A pickle file written with protocol 0 in binary mode will contain lone linefeeds as line terminators and therefore will look “funny” when viewed in Notepad or other editors which do not support this format. </div> The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> module provides the following functions to make the pickling process more convenient: <dl class="function"> <dt id="pickle.dump"> <tt class="descclassname">pickle.</tt><tt class="descname">dump</tt><big>(</big>obj, file[, protocol]<big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.dump" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Write a pickled representation of obj to the open file object file. This is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal">Pickler(file, protocol).dump(obj)</tt>. If the protocol parameter is omitted, protocol 0 is used. If protocol is specified as a negative value or <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL" title="pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL"><tt class="xref py py-const docutils literal">HIGHEST_PROTOCOL</tt></a>, the highest protocol version will be used. Changed in version 2.3: Introduced the protocol parameter. file must have a <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">write()</tt> method that accepts a single string argument. It can thus be a file object opened for writing, a <a class="reference internal" href="stringio.html#module-StringIO" title="StringIO: Read and write strings as if they were files."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">StringIO</tt></a> object, or any other custom object that meets this interface. </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="pickle.load"> <tt class="descclassname">pickle.</tt><tt class="descname">load</tt><big>(</big>file<big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.load" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Read a string from the open file object file and interpret it as a pickle data stream, reconstructing and returning the original object hierarchy. This is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal">Unpickler(file).load()</tt>. file must have two methods, a <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">read()</tt> method that takes an integer argument, and a <a class="reference internal" href="readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">readline()</tt></a> method that requires no arguments. Both methods should return a string. Thus file can be a file object opened for reading, a <a class="reference internal" href="stringio.html#module-StringIO" title="StringIO: Read and write strings as if they were files."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">StringIO</tt></a> object, or any other custom object that meets this interface. This function automatically determines whether the data stream was written in binary mode or not. </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="pickle.dumps"> <tt class="descclassname">pickle.</tt><tt class="descname">dumps</tt><big>(</big>obj[, protocol]<big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.dumps" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Return the pickled representation of the object as a string, instead of writing it to a file. If the protocol parameter is omitted, protocol 0 is used. If protocol is specified as a negative value or <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL" title="pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL"><tt class="xref py py-const docutils literal">HIGHEST_PROTOCOL</tt></a>, the highest protocol version will be used. Changed in version 2.3: The protocol parameter was added. </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="pickle.loads"> <tt class="descclassname">pickle.</tt><tt class="descname">loads</tt><big>(</big>string<big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.loads" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Read a pickled object hierarchy from a string. Characters in the string past the pickled object’s representation are ignored. </dd></dl> The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> module also defines three exceptions: <dl class="exception"> <dt id="pickle.PickleError"> exception <tt class="descclassname">pickle.</tt><tt class="descname">PickleError</tt><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.PickleError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>A common base class for the other exceptions defined below. This inherits from <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#exceptions.Exception" title="exceptions.Exception"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">Exception</tt></a>. </dd></dl> <dl class="exception"> <dt id="pickle.PicklingError"> exception <tt class="descclassname">pickle.</tt><tt class="descname">PicklingError</tt><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.PicklingError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>This exception is raised when an unpicklable object is passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.dump" title="pickle.dump"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">dump()</tt></a> method. </dd></dl> <dl class="exception"> <dt id="pickle.UnpicklingError"> exception <tt class="descclassname">pickle.</tt><tt class="descname">UnpicklingError</tt><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.UnpicklingError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>This exception is raised when there is a problem unpickling an object. Note that other exceptions may also be raised during unpickling, including (but not necessarily limited to) <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#exceptions.AttributeError" title="exceptions.AttributeError"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">AttributeError</tt></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#exceptions.EOFError" title="exceptions.EOFError"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">EOFError</tt></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#exceptions.ImportError" title="exceptions.ImportError"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">ImportError</tt></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#exceptions.IndexError" title="exceptions.IndexError"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">IndexError</tt></a>. </dd></dl> The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> module also exports two callables <a class="footnote-reference" href="#id12" id="id2">[2]</a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Pickler" title="pickle.Pickler"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Pickler</tt></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Unpickler" title="pickle.Unpickler"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Unpickler</tt></a>: <dl class="class"> <dt id="pickle.Pickler"> class <tt class="descclassname">pickle.</tt><tt class="descname">Pickler</tt><big>(</big>file[, protocol]<big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.Pickler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>This takes a file-like object to which it will write a pickle data stream. If the protocol parameter is omitted, protocol 0 is used. If protocol is specified as a negative value or <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL" title="pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL"><tt class="xref py py-const docutils literal">HIGHEST_PROTOCOL</tt></a>, the highest protocol version will be used. Changed in version 2.3: Introduced the protocol parameter. file must have a <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">write()</tt> method that accepts a single string argument. It can thus be an open file object, a <a class="reference internal" href="stringio.html#module-StringIO" title="StringIO: Read and write strings as if they were files."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">StringIO</tt></a> object, or any other custom object that meets this interface. <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Pickler" title="pickle.Pickler"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Pickler</tt></a> objects define one (or two) public methods: <dl class="method"> <dt id="pickle.Pickler.dump"> <tt class="descname">dump</tt><big>(</big>obj<big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.Pickler.dump" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Write a pickled representation of obj to the open file object given in the constructor. Either the binary or ASCII format will be used, depending on the value of the protocol argument passed to the constructor. </dd></dl> <dl class="method"> <dt id="pickle.Pickler.clear_memo"> <tt class="descname">clear_memo</tt><big>(</big><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.Pickler.clear_memo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Clears the pickler’s “memo”. The memo is the data structure that remembers which objects the pickler has already seen, so that shared or recursive objects pickled by reference and not by value. This method is useful when re-using picklers. <div class="admonition note"> Note Prior to Python 2.3, <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Pickler.clear_memo" title="pickle.Pickler.clear_memo"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">clear_memo()</tt></a> was only available on the picklers created by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle" title="cPickle: Faster version of pickle, but not subclassable."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">cPickle</tt></a>. In the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> module, picklers have an instance variable called <tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">memo</tt> which is a Python dictionary. So to clear the memo for a <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> module pickler, you could do the following: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>mypickler.memo.clear() </pre></div> </div> Code that does not need to support older versions of Python should simply use <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Pickler.clear_memo" title="pickle.Pickler.clear_memo"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">clear_memo()</tt></a>. </div> </dd></dl> </dd></dl> It is possible to make multiple calls to the <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.dump" title="pickle.dump"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">dump()</tt></a> method of the same <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Pickler" title="pickle.Pickler"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Pickler</tt></a> instance. These must then be matched to the same number of calls to the <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.load" title="pickle.load"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">load()</tt></a> method of the corresponding <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Unpickler" title="pickle.Unpickler"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Unpickler</tt></a> instance. If the same object is pickled by multiple <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.dump" title="pickle.dump"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">dump()</tt></a> calls, the <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.load" title="pickle.load"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">load()</tt></a> will all yield references to the same object. <a class="footnote-reference" href="#id13" id="id3">[3]</a> <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Unpickler" title="pickle.Unpickler"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Unpickler</tt></a> objects are defined as: <dl class="class"> <dt id="pickle.Unpickler"> class <tt class="descclassname">pickle.</tt><tt class="descname">Unpickler</tt><big>(</big>file<big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.Unpickler" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>This takes a file-like object from which it will read a pickle data stream. This class automatically determines whether the data stream was written in binary mode or not, so it does not need a flag as in the <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Pickler" title="pickle.Pickler"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Pickler</tt></a> factory. file must have two methods, a <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">read()</tt> method that takes an integer argument, and a <a class="reference internal" href="readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">readline()</tt></a> method that requires no arguments. Both methods should return a string. Thus file can be a file object opened for reading, a <a class="reference internal" href="stringio.html#module-StringIO" title="StringIO: Read and write strings as if they were files."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">StringIO</tt></a> object, or any other custom object that meets this interface. <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Unpickler" title="pickle.Unpickler"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Unpickler</tt></a> objects have one (or two) public methods: <dl class="method"> <dt id="pickle.Unpickler.load"> <tt class="descname">load</tt><big>(</big><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.Unpickler.load" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Read a pickled object representation from the open file object given in the constructor, and return the reconstituted object hierarchy specified therein. This method automatically determines whether the data stream was written in binary mode or not. </dd></dl> <dl class="method"> <dt id="pickle.Unpickler.noload"> <tt class="descname">noload</tt><big>(</big><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#pickle.Unpickler.noload" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>This is just like <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.load" title="pickle.load"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">load()</tt></a> except that it doesn’t actually create any objects. This is useful primarily for finding what’s called “persistent ids” that may be referenced in a pickle data stream. See section <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle-protocol">The pickle protocol</a> below for more details. Note: the <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Unpickler.noload" title="pickle.Unpickler.noload"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">noload()</tt></a> method is currently only available on <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Unpickler" title="pickle.Unpickler"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Unpickler</tt></a> objects created with the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle" title="cPickle: Faster version of pickle, but not subclassable."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">cPickle</tt></a> module. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> module <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Unpickler" title="pickle.Unpickler"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Unpickler</tt></a>s do not have the <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.Unpickler.noload" title="pickle.Unpickler.noload"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">noload()</tt></a> method. </dd></dl> </dd></dl> </div> <div class="section" id="what-can-be-pickled-and-unpickled"> <h2>11.1.4. What can be pickled and unpickled?<a class="headerlink" href="#what-can-be-pickled-and-unpickled" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> The following types can be pickled: <ul class="simple"> <li><tt class="docutils literal">None</tt>, <tt class="docutils literal">True</tt>, and <tt class="docutils literal">False</tt></li> <li>integers, long integers, floating point numbers, complex numbers</li> <li>normal and Unicode strings</li> <li>tuples, lists, sets, and dictionaries containing only picklable objects</li> <li>functions defined at the top level of a module</li> <li>built-in functions defined at the top level of a module</li> <li>classes that are defined at the top level of a module</li> <li>instances of such classes whose <tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">__dict__</tt> or the result of calling <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getstate__" title="object.__getstate__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__getstate__()</tt></a> is picklable (see section <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle-protocol">The pickle protocol</a> for details).</li> </ul> Attempts to pickle unpicklable objects will raise the <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle.PicklingError" title="pickle.PicklingError"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">PicklingError</tt></a> exception; when this happens, an unspecified number of bytes may have already been written to the underlying file. Trying to pickle a highly recursive data structure may exceed the maximum recursion depth, a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#exceptions.RuntimeError" title="exceptions.RuntimeError"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">RuntimeError</tt></a> will be raised in this case. You can carefully raise this limit with <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.setrecursionlimit" title="sys.setrecursionlimit"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">sys.setrecursionlimit()</tt></a>. Note that functions (built-in and user-defined) are pickled by “fully qualified” name reference, not by value. This means that only the function name is pickled, along with the name of the module the function is defined in. Neither the function’s code, nor any of its function attributes are pickled. Thus the defining module must be importable in the unpickling environment, and the module must contain the named object, otherwise an exception will be raised. <a class="footnote-reference" href="#id14" id="id4">[4]</a> Similarly, classes are pickled by named reference, so the same restrictions in the unpickling environment apply. Note that none of the class’s code or data is pickled, so in the following example the class attribute <tt class="docutils literal">attr</tt> is not restored in the unpickling environment: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>class Foo: attr = 'a class attr' picklestring = pickle.dumps(Foo) </pre></div> </div> These restrictions are why picklable functions and classes must be defined in the top level of a module. Similarly, when class instances are pickled, their class’s code and data are not pickled along with them. Only the instance data are pickled. This is done on purpose, so you can fix bugs in a class or add methods to the class and still load objects that were created with an earlier version of the class. If you plan to have long-lived objects that will see many versions of a class, it may be worthwhile to put a version number in the objects so that suitable conversions can be made by the class’s <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__setstate__" title="object.__setstate__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__setstate__()</tt></a> method. </div> <div class="section" id="the-pickle-protocol"> <h2>11.1.5. The pickle protocol<a class="headerlink" href="#the-pickle-protocol" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> This section describes the “pickling protocol” that defines the interface between the pickler/unpickler and the objects that are being serialized. This protocol provides a standard way for you to define, customize, and control how your objects are serialized and de-serialized. The description in this section doesn’t cover specific customizations that you can employ to make the unpickling environment slightly safer from untrusted pickle data streams; see section <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle-sub">Subclassing Unpicklers</a> for more details. <div class="section" id="pickling-and-unpickling-normal-class-instances"> <h3>11.1.5.1. Pickling and unpickling normal class instances<a class="headerlink" href="#pickling-and-unpickling-normal-class-instances" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <dl class="method"> <dt id="object.__getinitargs__"> <tt class="descclassname">object.</tt><tt class="descname">__getinitargs__</tt><big>(</big><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__getinitargs__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>When a pickled class instance is unpickled, its <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__init__()</tt></a> method is normally not invoked. If it is desirable that the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__init__()</tt></a> method be called on unpickling, an old-style class can define a method <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getinitargs__" title="object.__getinitargs__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__getinitargs__()</tt></a>, which should return a tuple containing the arguments to be passed to the class constructor (<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__init__()</tt></a> for example). The <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getinitargs__" title="object.__getinitargs__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__getinitargs__()</tt></a> method is called at pickle time; the tuple it returns is incorporated in the pickle for the instance. </dd></dl> <dl class="method"> <dt id="object.__getnewargs__"> <tt class="descclassname">object.</tt><tt class="descname">__getnewargs__</tt><big>(</big><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__getnewargs__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>New-style types can provide a <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getnewargs__" title="object.__getnewargs__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__getnewargs__()</tt></a> method that is used for protocol 2. Implementing this method is needed if the type establishes some internal invariants when the instance is created, or if the memory allocation is affected by the values passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__new__()</tt></a> method for the type (as it is for tuples and strings). Instances of a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-new-style-class">new-style class</a> <tt class="docutils literal">C</tt> are created using <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>obj = C.__new__(C, *args) </pre></div> </div> where args is the result of calling <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getnewargs__" title="object.__getnewargs__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__getnewargs__()</tt></a> on the original object; if there is no <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getnewargs__" title="object.__getnewargs__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__getnewargs__()</tt></a>, an empty tuple is assumed. </dd></dl> <dl class="method"> <dt id="object.__getstate__"> <tt class="descclassname">object.</tt><tt class="descname">__getstate__</tt><big>(</big><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__getstate__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Classes can further influence how their instances are pickled; if the class defines the method <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getstate__" title="object.__getstate__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__getstate__()</tt></a>, it is called and the return state is pickled as the contents for the instance, instead of the contents of the instance’s dictionary. If there is no <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getstate__" title="object.__getstate__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__getstate__()</tt></a> method, the instance’s <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">__dict__</tt></a> is pickled. </dd></dl> <dl class="method"> <dt id="object.__setstate__"> <tt class="descclassname">object.</tt><tt class="descname">__setstate__</tt><big>(</big>state<big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__setstate__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Upon unpickling, if the class also defines the method <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__setstate__" title="object.__setstate__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__setstate__()</tt></a>, it is called with the unpickled state. <a class="footnote-reference" href="#id15" id="id5">[5]</a> If there is no <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__setstate__" title="object.__setstate__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__setstate__()</tt></a> method, the pickled state must be a dictionary and its items are assigned to the new instance’s dictionary. If a class defines both <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getstate__" title="object.__getstate__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__getstate__()</tt></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__setstate__" title="object.__setstate__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__setstate__()</tt></a>, the state object needn’t be a dictionary and these methods can do what they want. <a class="footnote-reference" href="#id16" id="id6">[6]</a> <div class="admonition note"> Note For <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-new-style-class">new-style class</a>es, if <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getstate__" title="object.__getstate__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__getstate__()</tt></a> returns a false value, the <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__setstate__" title="object.__setstate__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__setstate__()</tt></a> method will not be called. </div> </dd></dl> <div class="admonition note"> Note At unpickling time, some methods like <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__getattr__()</tt></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__getattribute__()</tt></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__setattr__" title="object.__setattr__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__setattr__()</tt></a> may be called upon the instance. In case those methods rely on some internal invariant being true, the type should implement either <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getinitargs__" title="object.__getinitargs__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__getinitargs__()</tt></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getnewargs__" title="object.__getnewargs__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__getnewargs__()</tt></a> to establish such an invariant; otherwise, neither <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__new__()</tt></a> nor <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__init__()</tt></a> will be called. </div> </div> <div class="section" id="pickling-and-unpickling-extension-types"> <h3>11.1.5.2. Pickling and unpickling extension types<a class="headerlink" href="#pickling-and-unpickling-extension-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <dl class="method"> <dt id="object.__reduce__"> <tt class="descclassname">object.</tt><tt class="descname">__reduce__</tt><big>(</big><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__reduce__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>When the <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Pickler</tt> encounters an object of a type it knows nothing about — such as an extension type — it looks in two places for a hint of how to pickle it. One alternative is for the object to implement a <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce__" title="object.__reduce__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__reduce__()</tt></a> method. If provided, at pickling time <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce__" title="object.__reduce__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__reduce__()</tt></a> will be called with no arguments, and it must return either a string or a tuple. If a string is returned, it names a global variable whose contents are pickled as normal. The string returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce__" title="object.__reduce__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__reduce__()</tt></a> should be the object’s local name relative to its module; the pickle module searches the module namespace to determine the object’s module. When a tuple is returned, it must be between two and five elements long. Optional elements can either be omitted, or <tt class="docutils literal">None</tt> can be provided as their value. The contents of this tuple are pickled as normal and used to reconstruct the object at unpickling time. The semantics of each element are: <ul> <li>A callable object that will be called to create the initial version of the object. The next element of the tuple will provide arguments for this callable, and later elements provide additional state information that will subsequently be used to fully reconstruct the pickled data. In the unpickling environment this object must be either a class, a callable registered as a “safe constructor” (see below), or it must have an attribute <tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">__safe_for_unpickling__</tt> with a true value. Otherwise, an <tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">UnpicklingError</tt> will be raised in the unpickling environment. Note that as usual, the callable itself is pickled by name. </li> <li>A tuple of arguments for the callable object. Changed in version 2.5: Formerly, this argument could also be <tt class="docutils literal">None</tt>. </li> <li>Optionally, the object’s state, which will be passed to the object’s <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__setstate__" title="object.__setstate__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__setstate__()</tt></a> method as described in section <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle-inst">Pickling and unpickling normal class instances</a>. If the object has no <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__setstate__" title="object.__setstate__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__setstate__()</tt></a> method, then, as above, the value must be a dictionary and it will be added to the object’s <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">__dict__</tt></a>. </li> <li>Optionally, an iterator (and not a sequence) yielding successive list items. These list items will be pickled, and appended to the object using either <tt class="docutils literal">obj.append(item)</tt> or <tt class="docutils literal">obj.extend(list_of_items)</tt>. This is primarily used for list subclasses, but may be used by other classes as long as they have <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">append()</tt> and <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">extend()</tt> methods with the appropriate signature. (Whether <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">append()</tt> or <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">extend()</tt> is used depends on which pickle protocol version is used as well as the number of items to append, so both must be supported.) </li> <li>Optionally, an iterator (not a sequence) yielding successive dictionary items, which should be tuples of the form <tt class="docutils literal">(key, value)</tt>. These items will be pickled and stored to the object using <tt class="docutils literal">obj[key] = value</tt>. This is primarily used for dictionary subclasses, but may be used by other classes as long as they implement <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__setitem__" title="object.__setitem__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__setitem__()</tt></a>. </li> </ul> </dd></dl> <dl class="method"> <dt id="object.__reduce_ex__"> <tt class="descclassname">object.</tt><tt class="descname">__reduce_ex__</tt><big>(</big>protocol<big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#object.__reduce_ex__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>It is sometimes useful to know the protocol version when implementing <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce__" title="object.__reduce__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__reduce__()</tt></a>. This can be done by implementing a method named <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce_ex__" title="object.__reduce_ex__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__reduce_ex__()</tt></a> instead of <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce__" title="object.__reduce__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__reduce__()</tt></a>. <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce_ex__" title="object.__reduce_ex__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__reduce_ex__()</tt></a>, when it exists, is called in preference over <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce__" title="object.__reduce__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__reduce__()</tt></a> (you may still provide <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce__" title="object.__reduce__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__reduce__()</tt></a> for backwards compatibility). The <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce_ex__" title="object.__reduce_ex__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__reduce_ex__()</tt></a> method will be called with a single integer argument, the protocol version. The <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#object" title="object"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">object</tt></a> class implements both <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce__" title="object.__reduce__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__reduce__()</tt></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce_ex__" title="object.__reduce_ex__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__reduce_ex__()</tt></a>; however, if a subclass overrides <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce__" title="object.__reduce__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__reduce__()</tt></a> but not <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce_ex__" title="object.__reduce_ex__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__reduce_ex__()</tt></a>, the <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce_ex__" title="object.__reduce_ex__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__reduce_ex__()</tt></a> implementation detects this and calls <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce__" title="object.__reduce__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__reduce__()</tt></a>. </dd></dl> An alternative to implementing a <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce__" title="object.__reduce__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__reduce__()</tt></a> method on the object to be pickled, is to register the callable with the <a class="reference internal" href="copy_reg.html#module-copy_reg" title="copy_reg: Register pickle support functions."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">copy_reg</tt></a> module. This module provides a way for programs to register “reduction functions” and constructors for user-defined types. Reduction functions have the same semantics and interface as the <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__reduce__" title="object.__reduce__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__reduce__()</tt></a> method described above, except that they are called with a single argument, the object to be pickled. The registered constructor is deemed a “safe constructor” for purposes of unpickling as described above. </div> <div class="section" id="pickling-and-unpickling-external-objects"> <h3>11.1.5.3. Pickling and unpickling external objects<a class="headerlink" href="#pickling-and-unpickling-external-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> For the benefit of object persistence, the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> module supports the notion of a reference to an object outside the pickled data stream. Such objects are referenced by a “persistent id”, which is just an arbitrary string of printable ASCII characters. The resolution of such names is not defined by the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> module; it will delegate this resolution to user defined functions on the pickler and unpickler. <a class="footnote-reference" href="#id17" id="id7">[7]</a> To define external persistent id resolution, you need to set the <tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">persistent_id</tt> attribute of the pickler object and the <tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">persistent_load</tt> attribute of the unpickler object. To pickle objects that have an external persistent id, the pickler must have a custom <tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">persistent_id()</tt> method that takes an object as an argument and returns either <tt class="docutils literal">None</tt> or the persistent id for that object. When <tt class="docutils literal">None</tt> is returned, the pickler simply pickles the object as normal. When a persistent id string is returned, the pickler will pickle that string, along with a marker so that the unpickler will recognize the string as a persistent id. To unpickle external objects, the unpickler must have a custom <tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">persistent_load()</tt> function that takes a persistent id string and returns the referenced object. Here’s a silly example that might shed more light: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>import pickle from cStringIO import StringIO src = StringIO() p = pickle.Pickler(src) def persistent_id(obj): if hasattr(obj, 'x'): return 'the value %d' % obj.x else: return None p.persistent_id = persistent_id class Integer: def __init__(self, x): self.x = x def __str__(self): return 'My name is integer %d' % self.x i = Integer(7) print i p.dump(i) datastream = src.getvalue() print repr(datastream) dst = StringIO(datastream) up = pickle.Unpickler(dst) class FancyInteger(Integer): def __str__(self): return 'I am the integer %d' % self.x def persistent_load(persid): if persid.startswith('the value '): value = int(persid.split()[2]) return FancyInteger(value) else: raise pickle.UnpicklingError, 'Invalid persistent id' up.persistent_load = persistent_load j = up.load() print j </pre></div> </div> In the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle" title="cPickle: Faster version of pickle, but not subclassable."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">cPickle</tt></a> module, the unpickler’s <tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">persistent_load</tt> attribute can also be set to a Python list, in which case, when the unpickler reaches a persistent id, the persistent id string will simply be appended to this list. This functionality exists so that a pickle data stream can be “sniffed” for object references without actually instantiating all the objects in a pickle. <a class="footnote-reference" href="#id18" id="id8">[8]</a> Setting <tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">persistent_load</tt> to a list is usually used in conjunction with the <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">noload()</tt> method on the Unpickler. </div> </div> <div class="section" id="subclassing-unpicklers"> <h2>11.1.6. Subclassing Unpicklers<a class="headerlink" href="#subclassing-unpicklers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> By default, unpickling will import any class that it finds in the pickle data. You can control exactly what gets unpickled and what gets called by customizing your unpickler. Unfortunately, exactly how you do this is different depending on whether you’re using <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle" title="cPickle: Faster version of pickle, but not subclassable."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">cPickle</tt></a>. <a class="footnote-reference" href="#id19" id="id9">[9]</a> In the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> module, you need to derive a subclass from <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Unpickler</tt>, overriding the <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">load_global()</tt> method. <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">load_global()</tt> should read two lines from the pickle data stream where the first line will the name of the module containing the class and the second line will be the name of the instance’s class. It then looks up the class, possibly importing the module and digging out the attribute, then it appends what it finds to the unpickler’s stack. Later on, this class will be assigned to the <tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">__class__</tt> attribute of an empty class, as a way of magically creating an instance without calling its class’s <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__init__()</tt></a>. Your job (should you choose to accept it), would be to have <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">load_global()</tt> push onto the unpickler’s stack, a known safe version of any class you deem safe to unpickle. It is up to you to produce such a class. Or you could raise an error if you want to disallow all unpickling of instances. If this sounds like a hack, you’re right. Refer to the source code to make this work. Things are a little cleaner with <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle" title="cPickle: Faster version of pickle, but not subclassable."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">cPickle</tt></a>, but not by much. To control what gets unpickled, you can set the unpickler’s <tt class="xref py py-attr docutils literal">find_global</tt> attribute to a function or <tt class="docutils literal">None</tt>. If it is <tt class="docutils literal">None</tt> then any attempts to unpickle instances will raise an <tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">UnpicklingError</tt>. If it is a function, then it should accept a module name and a class name, and return the corresponding class object. It is responsible for looking up the class and performing any necessary imports, and it may raise an error to prevent instances of the class from being unpickled. The moral of the story is that you should be really careful about the source of the strings your application unpickles. </div> <div class="section" id="example"> <h2>11.1.7. Example<a class="headerlink" href="#example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> For the simplest code, use the <tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">dump()</tt> and <tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">load()</tt> functions. Note that a self-referencing list is pickled and restored correctly. <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>import pickle data1 = {'a': [1, 2.0, 3, 4+6j], 'b': ('string', u'Unicode string'), 'c': None} selfref_list = [1, 2, 3] selfref_list.append(selfref_list) output = open('data.pkl', 'wb') # Pickle dictionary using protocol 0. pickle.dump(data1, output) # Pickle the list using the highest protocol available. pickle.dump(selfref_list, output, -1) output.close() </pre></div> </div> The following example reads the resulting pickled data. When reading a pickle-containing file, you should open the file in binary mode because you can’t be sure if the ASCII or binary format was used. <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>import pprint, pickle pkl_file = open('data.pkl', 'rb') data1 = pickle.load(pkl_file) pprint.pprint(data1) data2 = pickle.load(pkl_file) pprint.pprint(data2) pkl_file.close() </pre></div> </div> Here’s a larger example that shows how to modify pickling behavior for a class. The <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">TextReader</tt> class opens a text file, and returns the line number and line contents each time its <a class="reference internal" href="readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">readline()</tt></a> method is called. If a <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">TextReader</tt> instance is pickled, all attributes except the file object member are saved. When the instance is unpickled, the file is reopened, and reading resumes from the last location. The <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__setstate__" title="object.__setstate__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__setstate__()</tt></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#object.__getstate__" title="object.__getstate__"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">__getstate__()</tt></a> methods are used to implement this behavior. <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>#!/usr/local/bin/python class TextReader: """Print and number lines in a text file.""" def __init__(self, file): self.file = file self.fh = open(file) self.lineno = 0 def readline(self): self.lineno = self.lineno + 1 line = self.fh.readline() if not line: return None if line.endswith("\n"): line = line[:-1] return "%d: %s" % (self.lineno, line) def __getstate__(self): odict = self.__dict__.copy() # copy the dict since we change it del odict['fh'] # remove filehandle entry return odict def __setstate__(self, dict): fh = open(dict['file']) # reopen file count = dict['lineno'] # read from file... while count: # until line count is restored fh.readline() count = count - 1 self.__dict__.update(dict) # update attributes self.fh = fh # save the file object </pre></div> </div> A sample usage might be something like this: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> import TextReader >>> obj = TextReader.TextReader("TextReader.py") >>> obj.readline() '1: #!/usr/local/bin/python' >>> obj.readline() '2: ' >>> obj.readline() '3: class TextReader:' >>> import pickle >>> pickle.dump(obj, open('save.p', 'wb')) </pre></div> </div> If you want to see that <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> works across Python processes, start another Python session, before continuing. What follows can happen from either the same process or a new process. <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> import pickle >>> reader = pickle.load(open('save.p', 'rb')) >>> reader.readline() '4: """Print and number lines in a text file."""' </pre></div> </div> <div class="admonition-see-also admonition seealso"> See also <dl class="last docutils"> <dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="copy_reg.html#module-copy_reg" title="copy_reg: Register pickle support functions."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">copy_reg</tt></a></dt> <dd>Pickle interface constructor registration for extension types.</dd> <dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="shelve.html#module-shelve" title="shelve: Python object persistence."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">shelve</tt></a></dt> <dd>Indexed databases of objects; uses <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a>.</dd> <dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="copy.html#module-copy" title="copy: Shallow and deep copy operations."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">copy</tt></a></dt> <dd>Shallow and deep object copying.</dd> <dt>Module <a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">marshal</tt></a></dt> <dd>High-performance serialization of built-in types.</dd> </dl> </div> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="module-cPickle"> <h1>11.2. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle" title="cPickle: Faster version of pickle, but not subclassable."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">cPickle</tt></a> — A faster <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a><a class="headerlink" href="#module-cPickle" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1> The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle" title="cPickle: Faster version of pickle, but not subclassable."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">cPickle</tt></a> module supports serialization and de-serialization of Python objects, providing an interface and functionality nearly identical to the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> module. There are several differences, the most important being performance and subclassability. First, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle" title="cPickle: Faster version of pickle, but not subclassable."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">cPickle</tt></a> can be up to 1000 times faster than <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> because the former is implemented in C. Second, in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle" title="cPickle: Faster version of pickle, but not subclassable."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">cPickle</tt></a> module the callables <tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">Pickler()</tt> and <tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">Unpickler()</tt> are functions, not classes. This means that you cannot use them to derive custom pickling and unpickling subclasses. Most applications have no need for this functionality and should benefit from the greatly improved performance of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle" title="cPickle: Faster version of pickle, but not subclassable."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">cPickle</tt></a> module. The pickle data stream produced by <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle" title="cPickle: Faster version of pickle, but not subclassable."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">cPickle</tt></a> are identical, so it is possible to use <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle" title="cPickle: Faster version of pickle, but not subclassable."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">cPickle</tt></a> interchangeably with existing pickles. <a class="footnote-reference" href="#id20" id="id10">[10]</a> There are additional minor differences in API between <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle" title="cPickle: Faster version of pickle, but not subclassable."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">cPickle</tt></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a>, however for most applications, they are interchangeable. More documentation is provided in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> module documentation, which includes a list of the documented differences. Footnotes <table class="docutils footnote" frame="void" id="id11" rules="none"> <colgroup><col class="label" /><col /></colgroup> <tbody valign="top"> <tr><td class="label"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">[1]</a></td><td>Don’t confuse this with the <a class="reference internal" href="marshal.html#module-marshal" title="marshal: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints)."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">marshal</tt></a> module</td></tr> </tbody> </table> <table class="docutils footnote" frame="void" id="id12" rules="none"> <colgroup><col class="label" /><col /></colgroup> <tbody valign="top"> <tr><td class="label"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id2">[2]</a></td><td>In the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> module these callables are classes, which you could subclass to customize the behavior. However, in the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle" title="cPickle: Faster version of pickle, but not subclassable."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">cPickle</tt></a> module these callables are factory functions and so cannot be subclassed. One common reason to subclass is to control what objects can actually be unpickled. See section <a class="reference internal" href="#pickle-sub">Subclassing Unpicklers</a> for more details.</td></tr> </tbody> </table> <table class="docutils footnote" frame="void" id="id13" rules="none"> <colgroup><col class="label" /><col /></colgroup> <tbody valign="top"> <tr><td class="label"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id3">[3]</a></td><td>Warning: this is intended for pickling multiple objects without intervening modifications to the objects or their parts. If you modify an object and then pickle it again using the same <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Pickler</tt> instance, the object is not pickled again — a reference to it is pickled and the <tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Unpickler</tt> will return the old value, not the modified one. There are two problems here: (1) detecting changes, and (2) marshalling a minimal set of changes. Garbage Collection may also become a problem here.</td></tr> </tbody> </table> <table class="docutils footnote" frame="void" id="id14" rules="none"> <colgroup><col class="label" /><col /></colgroup> <tbody valign="top"> <tr><td class="label"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id4">[4]</a></td><td>The exception raised will likely be an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#exceptions.ImportError" title="exceptions.ImportError"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">ImportError</tt></a> or an <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#exceptions.AttributeError" title="exceptions.AttributeError"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">AttributeError</tt></a> but it could be something else.</td></tr> </tbody> </table> <table class="docutils footnote" frame="void" id="id15" rules="none"> <colgroup><col class="label" /><col /></colgroup> <tbody valign="top"> <tr><td class="label"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id5">[5]</a></td><td>These methods can also be used to implement copying class instances.</td></tr> </tbody> </table> <table class="docutils footnote" frame="void" id="id16" rules="none"> <colgroup><col class="label" /><col /></colgroup> <tbody valign="top"> <tr><td class="label"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id6">[6]</a></td><td>This protocol is also used by the shallow and deep copying operations defined in the <a class="reference internal" href="copy.html#module-copy" title="copy: Shallow and deep copy operations."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">copy</tt></a> module.</td></tr> </tbody> </table> <table class="docutils footnote" frame="void" id="id17" rules="none"> <colgroup><col class="label" /><col /></colgroup> <tbody valign="top"> <tr><td class="label"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id7">[7]</a></td><td>The actual mechanism for associating these user defined functions is slightly different for <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle" title="cPickle: Faster version of pickle, but not subclassable."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">cPickle</tt></a>. The description given here works the same for both implementations. Users of the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> module could also use subclassing to effect the same results, overriding the <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">persistent_id()</tt> and <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">persistent_load()</tt> methods in the derived classes.</td></tr> </tbody> </table> <table class="docutils footnote" frame="void" id="id18" rules="none"> <colgroup><col class="label" /><col /></colgroup> <tbody valign="top"> <tr><td class="label"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id8">[8]</a></td><td>We’ll leave you with the image of Guido and Jim sitting around sniffing pickles in their living rooms.</td></tr> </tbody> </table> <table class="docutils footnote" frame="void" id="id19" rules="none"> <colgroup><col class="label" /><col /></colgroup> <tbody valign="top"> <tr><td class="label"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id9">[9]</a></td><td>A word of caution: the mechanisms described here use internal attributes and methods, which are subject to change in future versions of Python. We intend to someday provide a common interface for controlling this behavior, which will work in either <a class="reference internal" href="#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle" title="cPickle: Faster version of pickle, but not subclassable."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">cPickle</tt></a>.</td></tr> </tbody> </table> <table class="docutils footnote" frame="void" id="id20" rules="none"> <colgroup><col class="label" /><col /></colgroup> <tbody valign="top"> <tr><td class="label"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id10">[10]</a></td><td>Since the pickle data format is actually a tiny stack-oriented programming language, and some freedom is taken in the encodings of certain objects, it is possible that the two modules produce different data streams for the same input objects. However it is guaranteed that they will always be able to read each other’s data streams.</td></tr> </tbody> </table> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="sphinxsidebar"> <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper"> <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table Of Contents</a></h3> <ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#">11.1. <tt class="docutils literal">pickle</tt> — Python object serialization</a><ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#relationship-to-other-python-modules">11.1.1. Relationship to other Python modules</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#data-stream-format">11.1.2. Data stream format</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#usage">11.1.3. Usage</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#what-can-be-pickled-and-unpickled">11.1.4. What can be pickled and unpickled?</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-pickle-protocol">11.1.5. The pickle protocol</a><ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#pickling-and-unpickling-normal-class-instances">11.1.5.1. Pickling and unpickling normal class instances</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#pickling-and-unpickling-extension-types">11.1.5.2. Pickling and unpickling extension types</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#pickling-and-unpickling-external-objects">11.1.5.3. Pickling and unpickling external objects</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#subclassing-unpicklers">11.1.6. Subclassing Unpicklers</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#example">11.1.7. Example</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#module-cPickle">11.2. <tt class="docutils literal">cPickle</tt> — A faster <tt class="docutils literal">pickle</tt></a></li> </ul> <h4>Previous topic</h4> <a href="persistence.html" title="previous chapter">11. Data Persistence</a> <h4>Next topic</h4> <a href="copy_reg.html" title="next chapter">11.3. <tt class="docutils literal">copy_reg</tt> — Register <tt class="docutils literal">pickle</tt> support functions</a> <h3>This Page</h3> <ul class="this-page-menu"> <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li> <li><a href="../_sources/library/pickle.txt" rel="nofollow">Show Source</a></li> </ul> <div id="searchbox" style="display: none"> <h3>Quick search</h3> <form class="search" action="../search.html" method="get"> <input type="text" name="q" /> <input type="submit" value="Go" /> <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" /> <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" /> </form> Enter search terms or a module, class or function name. </div> <script type="text/javascript">$('#searchbox').show(0);</script> </div> </div> <div class="clearer"></div> </div> <div class="related"> <h3>Navigation</h3> <ul> <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px"> <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index" >index</a></li> <li class="right" > <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index" >modules</a> |</li> <li class="right" > <a href="copy_reg.html" title="11.3. copy_reg — Register pickle support functions" >next</a> |</li> <li class="right" > <a href="persistence.html" title="11. Data Persistence" >previous</a> |</li> <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt="" style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li> <li><a href="http://www.python.org/">Python</a> »</li> <li> <a href="../index.html">Python 2.7.5 documentation</a> » </li> <li><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> »</li> <li><a href="persistence.html" >11. Data Persistence</a> »</li> </ul> </div> <div class="footer"> © <a href="../copyright.html">Copyright</a> 1990-2019, Python Software Foundation. The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation. <a href="http://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a> Last updated on Jul 03, 2019. <a href="../bugs.html">Found a bug</a>? Created using <a href="http://sphinx.pocoo.org/">Sphinx</a> 1.1.3. </div> </body> </html>

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bz2.html	26.082 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:51	root / root	0644
calendar.html	37.788 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:51	root / root	0644
carbon.html	48.944 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:51	root / root	0644
cd.html	27.96 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:52	root / root	0644
cgi.html	49.924 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:52	root / root	0644
cgihttpserver.html	13.099 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:52	root / root	0644
cgitb.html	11.411 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:52	root / root	0644
chunk.html	14.664 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:52	root / root	0644
cmath.html	25.632 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:52	root / root	0644
cmd.html	26.095 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:52	root / root	0644
code.html	24.577 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:52	root / root	0644
codecs.html	100.638 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:52	root / root	0644
codeop.html	14.841 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:52	root / root	0644
collections.html	133.964 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:53	root / root	0644
colorpicker.html	7.523 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:53	root / root	0644
colorsys.html	11.037 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:53	root / root	0644
commands.html	14.361 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:53	root / root	0644
compileall.html	16.827 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:53	root / root	0644
compiler.html	67.75 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:53	root / root	0644
configparser.html	62.131 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:53	root / root	0644
constants.html	12.834 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:53	root / root	0644
contextlib.html	19.388 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:53	root / root	0644
cookie.html	39.068 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:53	root / root	0644
cookielib.html	83.822 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:53	root / root	0644
copy.html	12.189 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:53	root / root	0644
copy_reg.html	13.765 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:53	root / root	0644
crypt.html	10.041 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:53	root / root	0644
crypto.html	7.591 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:53	root / root	0644
csv.html	67.371 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:54	root / root	0644
ctypes.html	238.781 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:54	root / root	0644
curses.ascii.html	22.288 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:55	root / root	0644
curses.html	146.633 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:55	root / root	0644
curses.panel.html	14.388 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:55	root / root	0644
custominterp.html	7.624 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:55	root / root	0644
datatypes.html	16.845 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:55	root / root	0644
datetime.html	226.595 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:55	root / root	0644
dbhash.html	15.482 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:55	root / root	0644
dbm.html	12.068 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:55	root / root	0644
debug.html	10.151 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:55	root / root	0644
decimal.html	194.439 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:56	root / root	0644
development.html	14.168 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:56	root / root	0644
difflib.html	84.829 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:56	root / root	0644
dircache.html	11.407 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:56	root / root	0644
dis.html	69.951 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:56	root / root	0644
distutils.html	8.055 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:56	root / root	0644
dl.html	16.327 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:56	root / root	0644
doctest.html	165.542 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:57	root / root	0644
docxmlrpcserver.html	16.432 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:57	root / root	0644
dumbdbm.html	14.021 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:57	root / root	0644
dummy_thread.html	9.432 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:57	root / root	0644
dummy_threading.html	8.368 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:57	root / root	0644
easydialogs.html	30.546 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:57	root / root	0644
email-examples.html	45.654 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:57	root / root	0644
email.charset.html	26.804 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:57	root / root	0644
email.encoders.html	11.856 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:57	root / root	0644
email.errors.html	15.767 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:57	root / root	0644
email.generator.html	20.771 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:57	root / root	0644
email.header.html	26.922 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:57	root / root	0644
email.html	44.235 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:57	root / root	0644
email.iterators.html	11.521 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:57	root / root	0644
email.message.html	63.156 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:57	root / root	0644
email.mime.html	27.928 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:57	root / root	0644
email.parser.html	30.452 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:58	root / root	0644
email.util.html	24.461 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:58	root / root	0644
errno.html	37.994 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:58	root / root	0644
exceptions.html	56.126 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:58	root / root	0644
fcntl.html	22.673 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:58	root / root	0644
filecmp.html	22.299 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:58	root / root	0644
fileformats.html	9.136 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:58	root / root	0644
fileinput.html	24.278 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:58	root / root	0644
filesys.html	10.203 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:58	root / root	0644
fl.html	49.923 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:58	root / root	0644
fm.html	11.905 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:58	root / root	0644
fnmatch.html	14.577 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:58	root / root	0644
formatter.html	34.061 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:58	root / root	0644
fpectl.html	16.008 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:58	root / root	0644
fpformat.html	10.587 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:58	root / root	0644
fractions.html	22.608 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:59	root / root	0644
framework.html	33.345 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:59	root / root	0644
frameworks.html	7.143 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:59	root / root	0644
ftplib.html	43.989 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:59	root / root	0644
functions.html	183.145 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:59	root / root	0644
functools.html	27.169 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:59	root / root	0644
future_builtins.html	13.04 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:59	root / root	0644
gc.html	25.75 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:59	root / root	0644
gdbm.html	15.965 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:59	root / root	0644
gensuitemodule.html	11.513 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:59	root / root	0644
getopt.html	23.662 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:59	root / root	0644
getpass.html	10.652 KB	July 03 2019 16:47:59	root / root	0644
gettext.html	78.757 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:00	root / root	0644
gl.html	22.094 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:00	root / root	0644
glob.html	13.26 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:00	root / root	0644
grp.html	10.494 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:00	root / root	0644
gzip.html	18.985 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:00	root / root	0644
hashlib.html	18.198 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:00	root / root	0644
heapq.html	31.61 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:00	root / root	0644
hmac.html	10.464 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:00	root / root	0644
hotshot.html	18.649 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:00	root / root	0644
htmllib.html	25.315 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:00	root / root	0644
htmlparser.html	39.114 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:00	root / root	0644
httplib.html	62.95 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:00	root / root	0644
i18n.html	9.523 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:00	root / root	0644
ic.html	17.169 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:00	root / root	0644
idle.html	20.896 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:00	root / root	0644
imageop.html	14.765 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:00	root / root	0644
imaplib.html	51.986 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:01	root / root	0644
imgfile.html	11.712 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:01	root / root	0644
imghdr.html	11.297 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:01	root / root	0644
imp.html	34.344 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:01	root / root	0644
importlib.html	8.258 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:01	root / root	0644
imputil.html	31.808 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:01	root / root	0644
index.html	72.778 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:01	root / root	0644
inspect.html	50.705 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:01	root / root	0644
internet.html	24.872 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:01	root / root	0644
intro.html	8.935 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:01	root / root	0644
io.html	98.13 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:02	root / root	0644
ipc.html	13.405 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:02	root / root	0644
itertools.html	115.905 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:02	root / root	0644
jpeg.html	12.743 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:02	root / root	0644
json.html	67.037 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:02	root / root	0644
keyword.html	7.677 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:02	root / root	0644
language.html	11.027 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:02	root / root	0644
linecache.html	10.591 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:02	root / root	0644
locale.html	55.137 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:02	root / root	0644
logging.config.html	63.355 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:03	root / root	0644
logging.handlers.html	69.645 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:03	root / root	0644
logging.html	95.645 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:03	root / root	0644
mac.html	21.787 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:03	root / root	0644
macos.html	14.758 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:03	root / root	0644
macosa.html	12.959 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:03	root / root	0644
macostools.html	15.516 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:03	root / root	0644
macpath.html	7.764 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:03	root / root	0644
mailbox.html	156.753 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:03	root / root	0644
mailcap.html	13.215 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:03	root / root	0644
markup.html	18.772 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:04	root / root	0644
marshal.html	17.977 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:04	root / root	0644
math.html	39.242 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:04	root / root	0644
md5.html	13.968 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:04	root / root	0644
mhlib.html	21.537 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:04	root / root	0644
mimetools.html	19.251 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:04	root / root	0644
mimetypes.html	28.39 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:04	root / root	0644
mimewriter.html	15.016 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:04	root / root	0644
mimify.html	13.361 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:04	root / root	0644
miniaeframe.html	12.199 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:04	root / root	0644
misc.html	6.868 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:04	root / root	0644
mm.html	9.032 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:04	root / root	0644
mmap.html	28.364 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:04	root / root	0644
modulefinder.html	15.313 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:04	root / root	0644
modules.html	8.456 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:04	root / root	0644
msilib.html	52.431 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:04	root / root	0644
msvcrt.html	19.372 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:04	root / root	0644
multifile.html	24.297 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:04	root / root	0644
multiprocessing.html	365.706 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:05	root / root	0644
mutex.html	11.231 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:05	root / root	0644
netdata.html	16.983 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:05	root / root	0644
netrc.html	12.305 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:05	root / root	0644
new.html	12.122 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:05	root / root	0644
nis.html	10.636 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:05	root / root	0644
nntplib.html	41.919 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:05	root / root	0644
numbers.html	37.748 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:05	root / root	0644
numeric.html	13.553 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:05	root / root	0644
operator.html	82 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:06	root / root	0644
optparse.html	222.556 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:06	root / root	0644
os.html	214.245 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:07	root / root	0644
os.path.html	38.341 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:07	root / root	0644
ossaudiodev.html	41.503 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:07	root / root	0644
othergui.html	9.084 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:07	root / root	0644
parser.html	39.363 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:07	root / root	0644
pdb.html	33.961 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:07	root / root	0644
persistence.html	14.865 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:07	root / root	0644
pickle.html	102.271 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:07	root / root	0644
pickletools.html	10.631 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:07	root / root	0644
pipes.html	18.01 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:08	root / root	0644
pkgutil.html	25.107 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:08	root / root	0644
platform.html	28.367 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:08	root / root	0644
plistlib.html	17.028 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:08	root / root	0644
popen2.html	25.431 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:08	root / root	0644
poplib.html	22.321 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:08	root / root	0644
posix.html	14.413 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:08	root / root	0644
posixfile.html	19.763 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:08	root / root	0644
pprint.html	29.922 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:08	root / root	0644
profile.html	63.556 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:08	root / root	0644
pty.html	9.478 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:08	root / root	0644
pwd.html	11.428 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:08	root / root	0644
py_compile.html	11.116 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:08	root / root	0644
pyclbr.html	14.707 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:08	root / root	0644
pydoc.html	11.484 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:08	root / root	0644
pyexpat.html	71.528 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:08	root / root	0644
python.html	12.274 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:09	root / root	0644
queue.html	24.22 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:09	root / root	0644
quopri.html	11.896 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:09	root / root	0644
random.html	37.835 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:09	root / root	0644
re.html	134.742 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:09	root / root	0644
readline.html	28.24 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:09	root / root	0644
repr.html	20.427 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:09	root / root	0644
resource.html	26.483 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:09	root / root	0644
restricted.html	11.647 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:09	root / root	0644
rexec.html	37.41 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:09	root / root	0644
rfc822.html	42.22 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:09	root / root	0644
rlcompleter.html	13.506 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:09	root / root	0644
robotparser.html	12.268 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:10	root / root	0644
runpy.html	19.339 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:10	root / root	0644
sched.html	18.543 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:10	root / root	0644
scrolledtext.html	9.315 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:10	root / root	0644
select.html	39.672 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:10	root / root	0644
sets.html	36.918 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:10	root / root	0644
sgi.html	9.712 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:10	root / root	0644
sgmllib.html	30.771 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:10	root / root	0644
sha.html	12.088 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:10	root / root	0644
shelve.html	27.021 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:10	root / root	0644
shlex.html	32.102 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:10	root / root	0644
shutil.html	40.218 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:10	root / root	0644
signal.html	31.136 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:10	root / root	0644
simplehttpserver.html	18.41 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:10	root / root	0644
simplexmlrpcserver.html	31.388 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:10	root / root	0644
site.html	23.637 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:10	root / root	0644
smtpd.html	12.465 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:10	root / root	0644
smtplib.html	42.127 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:11	root / root	0644
sndhdr.html	10.018 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:11	root / root	0644
socket.html	106.338 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:11	root / root	0644
socketserver.html	59.829 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:11	root / root	0644
someos.html	15.106 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:11	root / root	0644
spwd.html	10.328 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:11	root / root	0644
sqlite3.html	139.502 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:11	root / root	0644
ssl.html	65.622 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:11	root / root	0644
stat.html	32.31 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:12	root / root	0644
statvfs.html	10.604 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:12	root / root	0644
stdtypes.html	260.401 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:12	root / root	0644
string.html	106.649 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:13	root / root	0644
stringio.html	18.813 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:13	root / root	0644
stringprep.html	16.13 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:13	root / root	0644
strings.html	14.927 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:13	root / root	0644
struct.html	40.878 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:13	root / root	0644
subprocess.html	84.912 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:13	root / root	0644
sun.html	6.843 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:13	root / root	0644
sunau.html	27.104 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:13	root / root	0644
sunaudio.html	17.795 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:13	root / root	0644
symbol.html	7.66 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:13	root / root	0644
symtable.html	22.937 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:13	root / root	0644
sys.html	98.698 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:13	root / root	0644
sysconfig.html	23.844 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:14	root / root	0644
syslog.html	17.919 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:14	root / root	0644
tabnanny.html	10.631 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:14	root / root	0644
tarfile.html	78.683 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:14	root / root	0644
telnetlib.html	25.479 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:14	root / root	0644
tempfile.html	29.416 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:14	root / root	0644
termios.html	16.011 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:14	root / root	0644
test.html	52.621 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:14	root / root	0644
textwrap.html	27.253 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:14	root / root	0644
thread.html	20.468 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:14	root / root	0644
threading.html	76.69 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:14	root / root	0644
time.html	56.927 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:15	root / root	0644
timeit.html	36.267 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:15	root / root	0644
tix.html	46.959 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:15	root / root	0644
tk.html	23.644 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:15	root / root	0644
tkinter.html	67.666 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:15	root / root	0644
token.html	19.617 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:15	root / root	0644
tokenize.html	18.445 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:15	root / root	0644
trace.html	25.535 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:15	root / root	0644
traceback.html	33.438 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:15	root / root	0644
ttk.html	101.749 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:16	root / root	0644
tty.html	9.058 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:16	root / root	0644
turtle.html	211.742 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:16	root / root	0644
types.html	27.591 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:16	root / root	0644
undoc.html	23.156 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:16	root / root	0644
unicodedata.html	18.546 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:16	root / root	0644
unittest.html	202.848 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:17	root / root	0644
unix.html	10.551 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:17	root / root	0644
urllib.html	58.682 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:17	root / root	0644
urllib2.html	100.578 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:17	root / root	0644
urlparse.html	40.414 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:17	root / root	0644
user.html	11.826 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:17	root / root	0644
userdict.html	29.729 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:17	root / root	0644
uu.html	11.026 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:17	root / root	0644
uuid.html	28.191 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:18	root / root	0644
warnings.html	46.599 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:18	root / root	0644
wave.html	22.216 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:18	root / root	0644
weakref.html	36.521 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:18	root / root	0644
webbrowser.html	23.065 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:18	root / root	0644
whichdb.html	8.853 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:18	root / root	0644
windows.html	9.335 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:18	root / root	0644
winsound.html	18.747 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:18	root / root	0644
wsgiref.html	81.043 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:18	root / root	0644
xdrlib.html	29.94 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:18	root / root	0644
xml.dom.html	89.044 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:19	root / root	0644
xml.dom.minidom.html	40.42 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:19	root / root	0644
xml.dom.pulldom.html	12.705 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:19	root / root	0644
xml.etree.elementtree.html	93.219 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:19	root / root	0644
xml.html	16.493 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:18	root / root	0644
xml.sax.handler.html	38.632 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:19	root / root	0644
xml.sax.html	20.221 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:19	root / root	0644
xml.sax.reader.html	39.086 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:19	root / root	0644
xml.sax.utils.html	14.257 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:19	root / root	0644
xmlrpclib.html	60.79 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:19	root / root	0644
zipfile.html	53.136 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:19	root / root	0644
zipimport.html	20.425 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:19	root / root	0644
zlib.html	25.461 KB	July 03 2019 16:48:20	root / root	0644

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