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<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <title>7. Input and Output — Python 2.7.5 documentation</title> <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/default.css" type="text/css" /> <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" /> <script type="text/javascript"> var DOCUMENTATION_OPTIONS = { URL_ROOT: '../', VERSION: '2.7.5', COLLAPSE_INDEX: false, FILE_SUFFIX: '.html', HAS_SOURCE: true }; </script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" title="Search within Python 2.7.5 documentation" href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/> <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" /> <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" /> <link rel="top" title="Python 2.7.5 documentation" href="../index.html" /> <link rel="up" title="The Python Tutorial" href="index.html" /> <link rel="next" title="8. Errors and Exceptions" href="errors.html" /> <link rel="prev" title="6. Modules" href="modules.html" /> <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" /> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script> </head> <body> <div class="related"> <h3>Navigation</h3> <ul> <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px"> <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index" accesskey="I">index</a></li> <li class="right" > <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index" >modules</a> |</li> <li class="right" > <a href="errors.html" title="8. Errors and Exceptions" accesskey="N">next</a> |</li> <li class="right" > <a href="modules.html" title="6. Modules" accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li> <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt="" style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li> <li><a href="http://www.python.org/">Python</a> »</li> <li> <a href="../index.html">Python 2.7.5 documentation</a> » </li> <li><a href="index.html" accesskey="U">The Python Tutorial</a> »</li> </ul> </div> <div class="document"> <div class="documentwrapper"> <div class="bodywrapper"> <div class="body"> <div class="section" id="input-and-output"> <h1>7. Input and Output<a class="headerlink" href="#input-and-output" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1> There are several ways to present the output of a program; data can be printed in a human-readable form, or written to a file for future use. This chapter will discuss some of the possibilities. <div class="section" id="fancier-output-formatting"> <h2>7.1. Fancier Output Formatting<a class="headerlink" href="#fancier-output-formatting" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> So far we’ve encountered two ways of writing values: expression statements and the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#print"><tt class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal">print</tt></a> statement. (A third way is using the <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">write()</tt> method of file objects; the standard output file can be referenced as <tt class="docutils literal">sys.stdout</tt>. See the Library Reference for more information on this.) Often you’ll want more control over the formatting of your output than simply printing space-separated values. There are two ways to format your output; the first way is to do all the string handling yourself; using string slicing and concatenation operations you can create any layout you can imagine. The string types have some methods that perform useful operations for padding strings to a given column width; these will be discussed shortly. The second way is to use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">str.format()</tt></a> method. The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#module-string" title="string: Common string operations."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">string</tt></a> module contains a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#string.Template" title="string.Template"><tt class="xref py py-class docutils literal">Template</tt></a> class which offers yet another way to substitute values into strings. One question remains, of course: how do you convert values to strings? Luckily, Python has ways to convert any value to a string: pass it to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/repr.html#module-repr" title="repr: Alternate repr() implementation with size limits."><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">repr()</tt></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#str" title="str"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">str()</tt></a> functions. The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#str" title="str"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">str()</tt></a> function is meant to return representations of values which are fairly human-readable, while <a class="reference internal" href="../library/repr.html#module-repr" title="repr: Alternate repr() implementation with size limits."><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">repr()</tt></a> is meant to generate representations which can be read by the interpreter (or will force a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#exceptions.SyntaxError" title="exceptions.SyntaxError"><tt class="xref py py-exc docutils literal">SyntaxError</tt></a> if there is no equivalent syntax). For objects which don’t have a particular representation for human consumption, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#str" title="str"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">str()</tt></a> will return the same value as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/repr.html#module-repr" title="repr: Alternate repr() implementation with size limits."><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">repr()</tt></a>. Many values, such as numbers or structures like lists and dictionaries, have the same representation using either function. Strings and floating point numbers, in particular, have two distinct representations. Some examples: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> s = 'Hello, world.' >>> str(s) 'Hello, world.' >>> repr(s) "'Hello, world.'" >>> str(1.0/7.0) '0.142857142857' >>> repr(1.0/7.0) '0.14285714285714285' >>> x = 10 * 3.25 >>> y = 200 * 200 >>> s = 'The value of x is ' + repr(x) + ', and y is ' + repr(y) + '...' >>> print s The value of x is 32.5, and y is 40000... >>> # The repr() of a string adds string quotes and backslashes: ... hello = 'hello, world\n' >>> hellos = repr(hello) >>> print hellos 'hello, world\n' >>> # The argument to repr() may be any Python object: ... repr((x, y, ('spam', 'eggs'))) "(32.5, 40000, ('spam', 'eggs'))" </pre></div> </div> Here are two ways to write a table of squares and cubes: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> for x in range(1, 11): ... print repr(x).rjust(2), repr(x*x).rjust(3), ... # Note trailing comma on previous line ... print repr(x*x*x).rjust(4) ... 1 1 1 2 4 8 3 9 27 4 16 64 5 25 125 6 36 216 7 49 343 8 64 512 9 81 729 10 100 1000 >>> for x in range(1,11): ... print '{0:2d} {1:3d} {2:4d}'.format(x, x*x, x*x*x) ... 1 1 1 2 4 8 3 9 27 4 16 64 5 25 125 6 36 216 7 49 343 8 64 512 9 81 729 10 100 1000 </pre></div> </div> (Note that in the first example, one space between each column was added by the way <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#print"><tt class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal">print</tt></a> works: it always adds spaces between its arguments.) This example demonstrates the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.rjust" title="str.rjust"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">str.rjust()</tt></a> method of string objects, which right-justifies a string in a field of a given width by padding it with spaces on the left. There are similar methods <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.ljust" title="str.ljust"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">str.ljust()</tt></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.center" title="str.center"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">str.center()</tt></a>. These methods do not write anything, they just return a new string. If the input string is too long, they don’t truncate it, but return it unchanged; this will mess up your column lay-out but that’s usually better than the alternative, which would be lying about a value. (If you really want truncation you can always add a slice operation, as in <tt class="docutils literal">x.ljust(n)[:n]</tt>.) There is another method, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.zfill" title="str.zfill"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">str.zfill()</tt></a>, which pads a numeric string on the left with zeros. It understands about plus and minus signs: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> '12'.zfill(5) '00012' >>> '-3.14'.zfill(7) '-003.14' >>> '3.14159265359'.zfill(5) '3.14159265359' </pre></div> </div> Basic usage of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">str.format()</tt></a> method looks like this: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> print 'We are the {} who say "{}!"'.format('knights', 'Ni') We are the knights who say "Ni!" </pre></div> </div> The brackets and characters within them (called format fields) are replaced with the objects passed into the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">str.format()</tt></a> method. A number in the brackets refers to the position of the object passed into the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">str.format()</tt></a> method. <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> print '{0} and {1}'.format('spam', 'eggs') spam and eggs >>> print '{1} and {0}'.format('spam', 'eggs') eggs and spam </pre></div> </div> If keyword arguments are used in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">str.format()</tt></a> method, their values are referred to by using the name of the argument. <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> print 'This {food} is {adjective}.'.format( ... food='spam', adjective='absolutely horrible') This spam is absolutely horrible. </pre></div> </div> Positional and keyword arguments can be arbitrarily combined: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> print 'The story of {0}, {1}, and {other}.'.format('Bill', 'Manfred', ... other='Georg') The story of Bill, Manfred, and Georg. </pre></div> </div> <tt class="docutils literal">'!s'</tt> (apply <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#str" title="str"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">str()</tt></a>) and <tt class="docutils literal">'!r'</tt> (apply <a class="reference internal" href="../library/repr.html#module-repr" title="repr: Alternate repr() implementation with size limits."><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">repr()</tt></a>) can be used to convert the value before it is formatted. <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> import math >>> print 'The value of PI is approximately {}.'.format(math.pi) The value of PI is approximately 3.14159265359. >>> print 'The value of PI is approximately {!r}.'.format(math.pi) The value of PI is approximately 3.141592653589793. </pre></div> </div> An optional <tt class="docutils literal">':'</tt> and format specifier can follow the field name. This allows greater control over how the value is formatted. The following example rounds Pi to three places after the decimal. <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> import math >>> print 'The value of PI is approximately {0:.3f}.'.format(math.pi) The value of PI is approximately 3.142. </pre></div> </div> Passing an integer after the <tt class="docutils literal">':'</tt> will cause that field to be a minimum number of characters wide. This is useful for making tables pretty. <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 7678} >>> for name, phone in table.items(): ... print '{0:10} ==> {1:10d}'.format(name, phone) ... Jack ==> 4098 Dcab ==> 7678 Sjoerd ==> 4127 </pre></div> </div> If you have a really long format string that you don’t want to split up, it would be nice if you could reference the variables to be formatted by name instead of by position. This can be done by simply passing the dict and using square brackets <tt class="docutils literal">'[]'</tt> to access the keys <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 8637678} >>> print ('Jack: {0[Jack]:d}; Sjoerd: {0[Sjoerd]:d}; ' ... 'Dcab: {0[Dcab]:d}'.format(table)) Jack: 4098; Sjoerd: 4127; Dcab: 8637678 </pre></div> </div> This could also be done by passing the table as keyword arguments with the ‘**’ notation. <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 8637678} >>> print 'Jack: {Jack:d}; Sjoerd: {Sjoerd:d}; Dcab: {Dcab:d}'.format(**table) Jack: 4098; Sjoerd: 4127; Dcab: 8637678 </pre></div> </div> This is particularly useful in combination with the built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#vars" title="vars"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">vars()</tt></a>, which returns a dictionary containing all local variables. For a complete overview of string formatting with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">str.format()</tt></a>, see <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#formatstrings">Format String Syntax</a>. <div class="section" id="old-string-formatting"> <h3>7.1.1. Old string formatting<a class="headerlink" href="#old-string-formatting" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> The <tt class="docutils literal">%</tt> operator can also be used for string formatting. It interprets the left argument much like a <tt class="xref c c-func docutils literal">sprintf()</tt>-style format string to be applied to the right argument, and returns the string resulting from this formatting operation. For example: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> import math >>> print 'The value of PI is approximately %5.3f.' % math.pi The value of PI is approximately 3.142. </pre></div> </div> Since <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">str.format()</tt></a> is quite new, a lot of Python code still uses the <tt class="docutils literal">%</tt> operator. However, because this old style of formatting will eventually be removed from the language, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">str.format()</tt></a> should generally be used. More information can be found in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#string-formatting">String Formatting Operations</a> section. </div> </div> <div class="section" id="reading-and-writing-files"> <h2>7.2. Reading and Writing Files<a class="headerlink" href="#reading-and-writing-files" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#open" title="open"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">open()</tt></a> returns a file object, and is most commonly used with two arguments: <tt class="docutils literal">open(filename, mode)</tt>. <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> f = open('workfile', 'w') >>> print f <open file 'workfile', mode 'w' at 80a0960> </pre></div> </div> The first argument is a string containing the filename. The second argument is another string containing a few characters describing the way in which the file will be used. mode can be <tt class="docutils literal">'r'</tt> when the file will only be read, <tt class="docutils literal">'w'</tt> for only writing (an existing file with the same name will be erased), and <tt class="docutils literal">'a'</tt> opens the file for appending; any data written to the file is automatically added to the end. <tt class="docutils literal">'r+'</tt> opens the file for both reading and writing. The mode argument is optional; <tt class="docutils literal">'r'</tt> will be assumed if it’s omitted. On Windows, <tt class="docutils literal">'b'</tt> appended to the mode opens the file in binary mode, so there are also modes like <tt class="docutils literal">'rb'</tt>, <tt class="docutils literal">'wb'</tt>, and <tt class="docutils literal">'r+b'</tt>. Python on Windows makes a distinction between text and binary files; the end-of-line characters in text files are automatically altered slightly when data is read or written. This behind-the-scenes modification to file data is fine for ASCII text files, but it’ll corrupt binary data like that in <tt class="file docutils literal">JPEG</tt> or <tt class="file docutils literal">EXE</tt> files. Be very careful to use binary mode when reading and writing such files. On Unix, it doesn’t hurt to append a <tt class="docutils literal">'b'</tt> to the mode, so you can use it platform-independently for all binary files. <div class="section" id="methods-of-file-objects"> <h3>7.2.1. Methods of File Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#methods-of-file-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> The rest of the examples in this section will assume that a file object called <tt class="docutils literal">f</tt> has already been created. To read a file’s contents, call <tt class="docutils literal">f.read(size)</tt>, which reads some quantity of data and returns it as a string. size is an optional numeric argument. When size is omitted or negative, the entire contents of the file will be read and returned; it’s your problem if the file is twice as large as your machine’s memory. Otherwise, at most size bytes are read and returned. If the end of the file has been reached, <tt class="docutils literal">f.read()</tt> will return an empty string (<tt class="docutils literal">""</tt>). <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> f.read() 'This is the entire file.\n' >>> f.read() '' </pre></div> </div> <tt class="docutils literal">f.readline()</tt> reads a single line from the file; a newline character (<tt class="docutils literal">\n</tt>) is left at the end of the string, and is only omitted on the last line of the file if the file doesn’t end in a newline. This makes the return value unambiguous; if <tt class="docutils literal">f.readline()</tt> returns an empty string, the end of the file has been reached, while a blank line is represented by <tt class="docutils literal">'\n'</tt>, a string containing only a single newline. <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> f.readline() 'This is the first line of the file.\n' >>> f.readline() 'Second line of the file\n' >>> f.readline() '' </pre></div> </div> For reading lines from a file, you can loop over the file object. This is memory efficient, fast, and leads to simple code: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> for line in f: print line, This is the first line of the file. Second line of the file </pre></div> </div> If you want to read all the lines of a file in a list you can also use <tt class="docutils literal">list(f)</tt> or <tt class="docutils literal">f.readlines()</tt>. <tt class="docutils literal">f.write(string)</tt> writes the contents of string to the file, returning <tt class="docutils literal">None</tt>. <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> f.write('This is a test\n') </pre></div> </div> To write something other than a string, it needs to be converted to a string first: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> value = ('the answer', 42) >>> s = str(value) >>> f.write(s) </pre></div> </div> <tt class="docutils literal">f.tell()</tt> returns an integer giving the file object’s current position in the file, measured in bytes from the beginning of the file. To change the file object’s position, use <tt class="docutils literal">f.seek(offset, from_what)</tt>. The position is computed from adding offset to a reference point; the reference point is selected by the from_what argument. A from_what value of 0 measures from the beginning of the file, 1 uses the current file position, and 2 uses the end of the file as the reference point. from_what can be omitted and defaults to 0, using the beginning of the file as the reference point. <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> f = open('workfile', 'r+') >>> f.write('0123456789abcdef') >>> f.seek(5) # Go to the 6th byte in the file >>> f.read(1) '5' >>> f.seek(-3, 2) # Go to the 3rd byte before the end >>> f.read(1) 'd' </pre></div> </div> When you’re done with a file, call <tt class="docutils literal">f.close()</tt> to close it and free up any system resources taken up by the open file. After calling <tt class="docutils literal">f.close()</tt>, attempts to use the file object will automatically fail. <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> f.close() >>> f.read() Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>", line 1, in ? ValueError: I/O operation on closed file </pre></div> </div> It is good practice to use the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><tt class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal">with</tt></a> keyword when dealing with file objects. This has the advantage that the file is properly closed after its suite finishes, even if an exception is raised on the way. It is also much shorter than writing equivalent <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><tt class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal">try</tt></a>-<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><tt class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal">finally</tt></a> blocks: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>>>> with open('workfile', 'r') as f: ... read_data = f.read() >>> f.closed True </pre></div> </div> File objects have some additional methods, such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#file.isatty" title="file.isatty"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">isatty()</tt></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#file.truncate" title="file.truncate"><tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">truncate()</tt></a> which are less frequently used; consult the Library Reference for a complete guide to file objects. </div> <div class="section" id="the-pickle-module"> <h3>7.2.2. The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> Module<a class="headerlink" href="#the-pickle-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> Strings can easily be written to and read from a file. Numbers take a bit more effort, since the <tt class="xref py py-meth docutils literal">read()</tt> method only returns strings, which will have to be passed to a function like <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><tt class="xref py py-func docutils literal">int()</tt></a>, which takes a string like <tt class="docutils literal">'123'</tt> and returns its numeric value 123. However, when you want to save more complex data types like lists, dictionaries, or class instances, things get a lot more complicated. Rather than have users be constantly writing and debugging code to save complicated data types, Python provides a standard module called <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a>. This is an amazing module that can take almost any Python object (even some forms of Python code!), and convert it to a string representation; this process is called pickling. Reconstructing the object from the string representation is called unpickling. Between pickling and unpickling, the string representing the object may have been stored in a file or data, or sent over a network connection to some distant machine. If you have an object <tt class="docutils literal">x</tt>, and a file object <tt class="docutils literal">f</tt> that’s been opened for writing, the simplest way to pickle the object takes only one line of code: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>pickle.dump(x, f) </pre></div> </div> To unpickle the object again, if <tt class="docutils literal">f</tt> is a file object which has been opened for reading: <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre>x = pickle.load(f) </pre></div> </div> (There are other variants of this, used when pickling many objects or when you don’t want to write the pickled data to a file; consult the complete documentation for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> in the Python Library Reference.) <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> is the standard way to make Python objects which can be stored and reused by other programs or by a future invocation of the same program; the technical term for this is a persistent object. Because <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><tt class="xref py py-mod docutils literal">pickle</tt></a> is so widely used, many authors who write Python extensions take care to ensure that new data types such as matrices can be properly pickled and unpickled. </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="sphinxsidebar"> <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper"> <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table Of Contents</a></h3> <ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#">7. Input and Output</a><ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#fancier-output-formatting">7.1. Fancier Output Formatting</a><ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#old-string-formatting">7.1.1. Old string formatting</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#reading-and-writing-files">7.2. Reading and Writing Files</a><ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#methods-of-file-objects">7.2.1. Methods of File Objects</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-pickle-module">7.2.2. The <tt class="docutils literal">pickle</tt> Module</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h4>Previous topic</h4> <a href="modules.html" title="previous chapter">6. Modules</a> <h4>Next topic</h4> <a href="errors.html" title="next chapter">8. 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